Table 1.

Results of the Three Meta-Analyses of the Experimental Studies

Training	Overall	Cognitive	Academic
Chess	0.34 [0.24, 0.44]	Overall: 0.33 [0.13, 0.53]	Mathematics: 0.38 [0.23, 0.53] Literacy: 0.25 [0.13, 0.37]
Music	0.16 [0.09, 0.22]	Intelligence (fluid/full-scale): 0.35 [0.21, 0.49] Memory: 0.34 [0.20, 0.48] Phonological processing: 0.17 [0.04, 0.29] Spatial cognition: 0.14 [–0.06, 0.34]	Mathematics: 0.17 [–0.02, 0.36] Literacy: –0.07 [–0.23, 0.09]
Working memory	0.12 [0.06, 0.18]	Fluid intelligence: 0.11 [–0.02, 0.24] Cognitive control: 0.09 [–0.08, 0.26]	Mathematics: 0.20 [0.03, 0.36] Literacy: 0.11 [0.00, 0.22]

Note: Results are presented as overall differences in standard deviations between treatment and control groups. The 95% confidence intervals are shown in brackets.