Table 2.

Stages of ecological invasion.

Four stages of ecological invasion	Entry		Establishment and growth			Negative effects	Spread
Seven sub-stages	1. Transportation: dispersal of microorganisms to a new sit	2. Introduction: entry into a new site	3. Establishment: survival and self-sustaining population	4. Growth: expansion	5. Diversification: mutation, lateral gene transfer, or adaptive evolution	6. Impact: negative effects on local communities	7. Spread: dispersal beyond the site of introduction
Macroecology, synthesis of plant, and animal ecology (92)	Transportation	Introduction	Colonization and naturalization			Impact	Spread
Macroecology, synthesis of plant, and animal ecology (93)	Transportation	Introduction	Establishment				Spread
Microbial ecology, based on plant ecology (90)	Introduction (passive or active dispersal beyond abiotic barriers)	Establishment (resource competition against biotic barriers)	Growth and spread (access to local resources and niche construction, adaptive evolution, and horizontal gene transfer)			Impact (following displacement or alteration of community function)
Microbial ecology, based on community ecology principles (87)		Entry	Establishment		Diversification
Microbiome ecology, based on plant ecology (89)	Dispersal	Colonization	Establishment	Spread			Spread