Table 4.

Selection of empirical functions of innovation system literature.

Reference	Innovation system	Results
Negro et al. (2008)	Biomass gasification in the Netherlands	Biomass gasification has not yet emerged in the Netherlands because of a structural misalignment between the institutional framework (of the electricity grid) and the technical requirements of gasification. Furthermore, TIS actors did not join forces when it came to developing a vision, shaping expectations, and advocating the technology.
Negro and Hekkert (2008)	Biomass digestion in Germany	Successful development of biomass digestion in Germany was due to a well-functioning system (all seven functions) and the role of the government as a system builder, not only as fund provider.
Pohl and Yarime (2012)	All-electric and hybrid electric vehicles in Japan	Successful development of all-electric and hybrid electric vehicles was carried out in-house by automakers as a result of a specific type of competition in the domestic market, without support of national policy.
Alkemade and Suurs (2012)	Alternative transport fuels in the Netherlands	In the development of alternative transport fuels (biofuels, hydrogen, and natural gas), early phases of competition are often based on actors’ expectations rather than on technological performance.
Andreasen and Sovacool (2015)	Hydrogen fuel in Denmark and the USA	The two countries have similar strategies (aiming at ultimately replacing incumbent fossil-fueled power plants and vehicles) but widely different pathways. However, neither system achieved important commercialization because of important vested interests.