Scatter plots showing the concentration of a) RANTES (CCL5) and b) tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-β in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from HIV-uninfected adults compared to untreated and treated HIV-infected individuals. Bars represent the median and error bars are 95% confidence intervals. Data were analysed using the Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn's multiple comparisons test. Network graphs of the cytokine associations among 33 BAL fluid cytokines for c) HIV-uninfected individuals, d) antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naïve HIV-infected individuals and e) HIV-infected individuals on long-term ART. The shorter the connecting line between the circles, the greater the magnitude of the correlation. Bar graphs showing the number of associations per cytokine in BAL fluid for f) HIV-uninfected individuals, g) ART-naïve HIV-infected individuals and h) HIV-infected individuals on ART. Only correlations >0.80 with p<0.05 were considered in this analysis (HIV−, n=21; HIV+ ART−, n=33; HIV+ ART+, n=20). SDF: stromal cell-derived factor; MIP: macrophage inflammatory protein; MCP: monocyte chemoattractant protein; IP: interferon-γ-inducible protein; IL; interleukin; GM-CSF: granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IFN: interferon; IL1RA: IL-1 receptor antagonist.