Table 3.
Major results of studies on bioreactor type, culture mode and other operational conditions for dinoflagellate growth and/or biotoxin synthesis optimization.
| Species and Strain | Type of Reactor | Reactor Operation | Reactor Size | Type of Aeration/Agitation | T (°C) | Irradiance Culture System | Light Intensity (µmol m−2 s−1) | Light Regime | Biotoxin Produced | Specific r-Emsarks | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prorocentrum lima spp. | Carboy | Batch | 36 L | Stirring (discontinuous) | 18 ± 1 | - | 90 ± 5 | Continuous dark/14 h:10 h | Okadaic acid Dinophysistoxin |
- | [326] |
| Protoceratium reticulatum CAWD129 | Carboy | Batch | 226 L | - | - | - | - | 12 h/12 h | Yessotoxin Furanoyessotoxin |
Serial bulk culture (size ~14 L each) | [329] |
| Azadinium spinosum 3D9 | Chemostat in series | Continuous | 100 L | Stirring (not specified) | 18 | - | 200 | 16 h/8 h | Azaspiracid | - | [330] |
| Azadinium spinosum 3D9 | Tubular PBRs in series | Continuous | 100 L | Stirring (Rushton turbine) | 18 | Neon tube lamps | 200 | 16 h/8 h | Azaspiracid | Culture collected in an aerated harvesting tank (300 L) | [331] |
| Alexandrium tamarense ATHK | Airlift PBR | Batch | 2.5 L | Airlift | 22 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 60 | Continuous | Saxitoxin | Two-step batch culture method | [332] |
| Alexandrium tamarense ATCI01 | Glass rectangular tank | Batch/Semi-continuous | 70 L 40 L |
Air bubbling (continuous) | 23 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 108 | 16 h/8 h | C2 toxin | - | [333] [334] |
| Protoceratium reticulatum GG1AM | Stirred-PBR | Batch/Fed-batch /Semi-continuous | 15 L | Stirring (impeller)/gas sparging | 19 ± 1 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 242–766 | - | Yessotoxin | - | [290] |
| Protoceratium reticulatum GG1AM and VGO764 | Stirred-glass fermenter | Semi-continuous Fed-batch Continuous |
2 L | Stirring (impeller) | - | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | (e.g., 34, 44, 54, 66, 81, 99, 100) | - | Yessotoxin | - | [335] [270] |
| Amphidinium carterae ACRN03 | Airlift bubble column PBR | Semi-continuous | 540 L 320 L 48 L |
Compressed air (continuous) |
23.3 ± 2.2 | - | 158 ± 22 (indoor) ~464 (outdoor) |
18 h/ 6h | N/A | Production of biomass | [289] |
|
Karenia selliformes CAWD79 Alexandrium ostenfeldii CAWD135 Karenia Brevisulcata CAWD82 |
Column PBRs Carboy | Batch/ Continuous |
5.4 L 52 L |
Magnetic stirring/Air bubbling (low) | - | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 38 | 12 h/12 h | Gymnodimine Spirolide Brevisulcatic acid |
- | [268] |
| Karlodinium veneficum K10 | Bubble column PBR | Batch (sequential) | 80 L | Gas Sparging | 21 ± 1 | LEDs | 220 1500 (>7th day) |
12 h/12 h | N/A | - | [287] |
| Amphidinium sp. | Flat-bottom flask | Batch | 3 L | - | 25 | - | 108 | 16 h/8 h | Amphidinolide | - | [248] |
| Alexandrium minutum AMAD06 and AMAD16 | Alveolar panel PBR | Batch/Semi-continuous | 4 L | Alveoli | - | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 100 | 12 h/12 h | Gonyautoxin/fraction of saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin and C-toxin | - | [336] |
| Alexandrium ostenfeldii CCMP1773 | Flat-bottom vessel | Batch | 8 L | N/A | 16 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 155 | 12 h/12 h | Spirolide | - | [337] |
| Alexandrium ostenfeldii CCMP1773 | Column PBR | Continuous | 100 L | Stirring (paddle impeller turbines) | 18 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 190 | 16 h/8 h | Spirolide | - | [337] |
| Alexandrium pacificum HYM9704 | Chemostat system | Batch Semi-continuous |
2 L | Air bubbling | 15 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 150 | 12/12 | C-toxin Gonyatoxin Saxitoxin |
- | [338] |
| Amphidinium carterae (Hulbert) | Plastic cylinder | Batch | 40 L | Airlift | 22 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 40 | 12 h/12 h | N/A | Identification of pharmacological activity in vitro using algal extracts | [339] |
| Prorocentrum lima CCMP 2579 | Vertical flat PBR | Batch | 100 L | Air bubbling | 20 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 100 | 12 h/12 h | Okadaic acid Dinophysistoxins |
- | [321] |
|
Karlodinium veneficum ICMB 252 Alexandrium. minutum AMP4 |
Column PBR | Batch (indoors) Semi-continuous (outdoors) |
350 L | Air bubbling | 20 ± 1 (indoors) Variable (outdoors) |
Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 110 (indoors) 202–4020 (outdoors) |
12 h/12 h | N/A | Each PBR column size ~35 L each Production of lipids |
[340] |
| Symbiodinium voratum | Twin Layer PBR (Biofilm-immobilization) |
Continuous | 414 cm2 | Air tube (continuous) | 23 ± 1 25 ± 3 |
Cool-white fluorescent and Sodium lamps |
26 ± 2 73.5 ± 17.5 |
14 h/10 h | N/A | Production of peridin | [341] |
|
Amphidinium carterae (JHWAC) Symbiodinium sp. (JHLSD1) Prorocentrum rathymum (JHWPMX1) |
Vertical column PBR system (12× column) | Batch | 700 L | Air bubbling | 20 ± 1 | Cool-white fluorescent lamps | 40–50 | 12 h/12 h | N/A | Each PBR column size ~60 L each Screening antioxidant properties |
[342] |
| Karlodinium veneficum (CCMP 2936) | Vertical column PBR | Batch | 31 L | N/A | 24 | LEDs | 50 | 14 h/10 h | N/A | Study on vertical migration | [343] |
N/A—Not Applicable.