Table 2.
Scoring of PAIC items on question indicative of pain and on question specific for pain
| PAIC items | Clinical experts (n=40)
|
ECPs (n=20)
|
Nurses (n=20)
|
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Indicative of pain (mean, SD)* | Specific for pain§ | Indicative of pain (mean, SD)* | Specific for pain§ | Indicative of pain (mean, SD)* | Specific for pain§ | |
| Facial expressions | ||||||
| Pained expression | 0.90 (0.20) | X | 0.88 (0.22) | X | 0.93 (0.18) | X |
| Frowning | 0.54 (0.41) | X | 0.58 (0.18) | X | 0.50 (0.56) | |
| Narrowing eyes | 0.27 (0.52) | X | 0.45 (0.36) | X | 0.13 (0.60) | X |
| Closing eyes | −0.05 (0.61) | −0.20 (0.55) | 0.10 (0.64) | |||
| Raising upper lip | 0.15 (0.58) | X | 0.11 (0.54) | X | 0.20 (0.62) | X |
| Opened mouth | −0.23 (0.62) | −0.40 (0.50) | −0.05 (0.69) | |||
| Tightened lips | 0.41 (0.52) | X | 0.30 (0.41) | X | 0.53 (0.61) | X |
| Clenched teeth | 0.41 (0.52) | X | 0.45 (0.36) | X | 0.36 (0.66) | X |
| Empty gaze | −0.45 (0.54) | −0.60 (0.35) | −0.29 (0.65) | |||
| Seeming disinterested | −0.50 (0.56) | −0.75 (0.26) | −0.24 (0.67) | |||
| Pale face | −0.27 (0.61) | −0.50 (0.41) | −0.02 (0.70) | X | ||
| Teary eyed | 0.13 (0.63) | 0.00 (0.58) | 0.25 (0.66) | X | ||
| Looking tense | 0.44 (0.48) | 0.35 (0.46) | 0.53 (0.50) | |||
| Looking sad | 0.10 (0.68) | −0.08 (0.54) | 0.29 (0.77) | |||
| Looking frightened | 0.49 (0.58) | 0.41 (0.58) | 0.55 (0.58) | |||
| Body movements | ||||||
| Freezing | 0.65 (0.36) | X | 0.70 (0.25) | 0.60 (0.45) | X | |
| Curling up | 0.69 (0.37) | X | 0.78 (0.26) | X | 0.60 (0.44) | |
| Clenching hands | 0.41 (0.47) | 0.45 (0.36) | 0.38 (0.56) | |||
| Resisting care | 0.19 (0.49) | 0.17 (0.49) | 0.23 (0.53) | |||
| Pushing | 0.33 (0.58) | 0.20 (0.55) | 0.45 (0.60) | |||
| Guarding | 0.65 (0.41) | X | 0.68 (0.37) | X | 0.63 (0.46) | X |
| Rubbing | 0.54 (0.42) | X | 0.53 (0.41) | X | 0.55 (0.44) | X |
| Limping | 0.68 (0.42) | X | 0.63 (0.46) | X | 0.73 (0.38) | X |
| Restlessness | 0.23 (0.57) | 0.08 (0.46) | 0.38 (0.56) | |||
| Pacing | 0.09 (0.62) | −0.05 (0.58) | 0.23 (0.64) | |||
| Vocalizations | ||||||
| Using offensive words | 0.23 (0.55) | 0.13 (0.54) | 0.34 (0.55) | |||
| Using pain-related words | 0.90 (0.29) | X | 0.89 (0.21) | X | 0.90 (0.35) | X |
| Repeating words | −0.26 (0.53) | −0.33 (0.52) | −0.20 (0.55) | |||
| Complaining | 0.64 (0.36) | X | 0.65 (0.24) | X | 0.63 (0.46) | |
| Shouting | 0.03 (0.58) | −0.05 (0.58) | 0.10 (0.58) | |||
| Mumbling | −0.18 (0.55) | −0.35 (0.46) | 0.00 (0.58) | |||
| Screaming | 0.26 (0.53) | 0.15 (0.56) | 0.38 (0.48) | |||
| Groaning | 0.71 (0.32) | X | 0.66 (0.37) | X | 0.75 (0.26) | X |
| Crying | 0.60 (0.40) | 0.53 (0.41) | 0.68 (0.37) | X | ||
| Gasping | 0.35 (0.57) | X | 0.35 (0.54) | 0.35 (0.61) | X | |
| Sighing | 0.14 (0.58) | 0.10 (0.58) | 0.18 (0.59) | X | ||
Notes:
*
Mean score >0.50 considered content valid.
§
When marked with an “X,” at least 50% of clinical experts rated the item as specific for pain. Bold entries indicate PAIC items indicative of pain as well as specific for pain.
Abbreviations: PAIC, Pain Assessment in Impaired Cognition; ECP, elderly care physician.