Table 1.
Polymer nanocomposites obtained from nanocellulose by melt compounding. ABS, acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene; ASA, alkenyl succinic anhydride; BC, bacterial cellulose; CA, cellulose acetate; CNC, cellulose nanocrystal; CNF, cellulose nanofibril; DMF, dimethylformamide; EA, ethylene acrylic; EAA, ethylene acrylic acid; EVOH, ethylene vinyl alcohol; GMA, glycidyl methacrylate; GTA, glycerol triacetate; HDPE, high-density polyethylene; LDPE, low-density polyethylene; MAPE, maleated PE; MAPLA, maleated PLA; MAPP, maleated PP; NR, natural rubber; PA4.10, polyamide 4.10; PA6, polyamide 6; PA11, polyamide 11; PA12, polyamide 12; PBAT, polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate; PBG, poly(butyl glutarate); PBS, polybutylene succinate; PBSA, poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate); PC, polycarbonate; PCL, polycaprolactone; PE, polyethyne; PEG, polyethylene glycol; PEO, poly(ethylene oxide); PGA, polypropylene glycol alginate; PHB, polyhydroxybutyrate; PHBV, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate); PLA, polylactic acid; PLMA-b-PHEMA, poly(lauryl methacrylate)-block-poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate); PMMA, poly(methyl methacrylate); PP, polypropylene; PPC, poly(propylene carbonate); PPO, poly(propylene oxide); PS, polystyrene; poly(S-co-BuA) = poly(styrene-co-butyl acrylate); PU, polyurethane; PVA, polyvinyl alcohol; PVAc, polyvinyl acetate; ROP, ring-opening polymerization; SMA, styrene maleic anhydride; VTS, vinyl triethoxy silane.
| polymer | nanoparticle | processing aid/surface functionalization | processing technique | references |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ABS | CNC | masterbatch/MAPE | extrusion/hot-pressing | [31] |
| Bioplast | CNF/CNC | masterbatch with alginate | extrusion | [32] |
| CA | CNC | masterbatch | extrusion/injection moulding | [33] |
| EVOH | CNC | electrospinning/masterbatch with EVOH | mixing/hot-pressing | [34,35] |
| HDPE | CNF | MAPE/PEO | extrusion | [36] |
| MAPP/ASA | extrusion/injection moulding | [37] | ||
| PLMA-b-PHEMA | extrusion/injection moulding | [38] | ||
| masterbatch with PVA | injection moulding | [39] | ||
| CNC | VTS grafting | mixing/hot-pressing | [40] | |
| vegetable oils | extrusion/hot-pressing | [41] | ||
| MAPE | extrusion | [42] | ||
| LDPE | CNF | EA | mixing/hot-pressing | [43] |
| — | extrusion/hot-pressing | [44,45] | ||
| PEG-b-PE | extrusion/hot-pressing | [46] | ||
| CNC | organic acid chloride grafting | extrusion | [22] | |
| masterbatch with PEO | extrusion | [47,48] | ||
| — | extrusion | [49] | ||
| PEO–PPO–PEO | extrusion | [50] | ||
| NR | CNF/CNC | masterbatch with NR | milling/hot-pressing | [51] |
| CNC | masterbatch with NR | milling/hot-pressing | [52] | |
| silanization | milling/hot-pressing | [53] | ||
| PA4.10 | CNF | acetylation | extrusion | [54] |
| PA6 | CNC | masterbatch | extrusion/injection moulding | [55] |
| silanization/in situ polymerization in caprolactam | extrusion | [56] | ||
| water-assisted compounding | extrusion | [57] | ||
| masterbatch with PA6 | extrusion/injection moulding | [58] | ||
| PA11 | CNC | — | mixing/hot-pressing | [59] |
| PA12 | CNF | cationic surfactant | extrusion/injection moulding | [60] |
| CNC | — | mixing/hot-pressing | [61] | |
| PBAT | CNF | — | extrusion/injection moulding | [62] |
| CNC | — | extrusion/injection moulding | [63,64] | |
| phenylbutyl isocyanate grafting | extrusion | [65] | ||
| PBG grafting | extrusion/hot-pressing | [66] | ||
| acetylation | mixing/hot-pressing | [67] | ||
| PBS | CNC | — | mixing/hot-pressing/foaming | [68] |
| acetylation | mixing/hot-pressing/foaming | [69] | ||
| masterbatch with PEG | extrusion/injection moulding | [70] | ||
| PBSA | CNC | phthalic anhydride | mixing/hot-pressing | [71] |
| PC | CNC | masterbatch | extrusion | [72] |
| PCL | CNC | ROP PCL grafting | extrusion/injection moulding | [73] |
| — | mixing/hot-pressing | [74] | ||
| — | extrusion/injection moulding | [75] | ||
| PEO | CNF | — | mixing/hot-pressing | [76] |
| CNC | — | extrusion | [77] | |
| PHB | CNF | SMA/PGA/EAA | mixing/injection moulding | [78] |
| CNC | — | mixing | [79] | |
| PHBV | CNF | masterbatch in PHBV | mixing/injection moulding | [80] |
| CNC | PEG | extrusion/injection moulding | [81] | |
| ball milling | hot-pressing | [82] | ||
| PLA | CNF | SMA/PGA/EAA | mixing/injection moulding | [78] |
| — | mixing/hot-pressing | [83,84] | ||
| masterbatch with PLA in acetone/chloroform | extrusion/injection | [85] | ||
| — | injection | [86] | ||
| masterbatch/carboxymethylation/esterification | extrusion/injection | [87] | ||
| liquid feeding/GTA | extrusion/hot-pressing | [88] | ||
| CNC | PEG/MAPLA | extrusion | [89] | |
| PVA | extrusion | [90] | ||
| ROP PLA grafting | extrusion/injection | [91] | ||
| silanization | extrusion/injection | [92] | ||
| surfactant | extrusion | [93] | ||
| masterbatch/acetylation | extrusion | [94] | ||
| GMA grafting/masterbatch | mixing | [95] | ||
| — | mixing/hot-pressing | [96] | ||
| masterbatch with PEO | mixing/hot-pressing | [97] | ||
| lactate and acetate modification | extrusion/injection moulding | [98] | ||
| PLA grafting reactive extrusion | extrusion | [99] | ||
| — | extrusion | [100] | ||
| liquid feeding | extrusion | [101] | ||
| ROP PLA grafting | extrusion | [102] | ||
| ROP PLA grafting | extrusion/hot-pressing | [103] | ||
| PMMA grafting | extrusion/injection moulding | [104] | ||
| masterbatch with GMA-g-PLA | extrusion | [105,106] | ||
| ball milling | hot-pressing | [107] | ||
| organic solvent-assisted centrifugation/acetylation | injection moulding | [108] | ||
| maleic anhydride | mixing/injection moulding | [109] | ||
| masterbatch with PVAc or PVAc/GMA | extrusion | [110] | ||
| masterbatch with PEG | mixing/hot-pressing | [111] | ||
| BC | acetylation | mixing/hot-pressing | [112] | |
| PLA/limonene | CNC | — | extrusion | [113] |
| PLA/NR | CNC | n-octadecyl isocyanate/ROP PLA grafting | extrusion | [114] |
| PLA/PHB | CNC | masterbatch/surfactant | extrusion/hot-pressing | [115,116] |
| PP | CNF | EA | mixing/hot-pressing | [117] |
| masterbatch with PCL | mixing/hot-pressing | [118] | ||
| in situ nanofibrillation/MAPP | extrusion/hot-pressing/injection moulding | [119] | ||
| surfactant/MAPP | extrusion/hot-pressing/injection moulding | [120] | ||
| MAPP/cationic polymer | extrusion/injection moulding | [121] | ||
| solid-state pulverization/MAPP | hot-pressing/injection moulding | [122] | ||
| masterbatch/MAPP | extrusion | [123] | ||
| CNC | n-octadecyl/MAPP | extrusion/hot-pressing | [124] | |
| spray freeze drying | mixing | [125,126] | ||
| masterbatch | extrusion/injection moulding | [127] | ||
| — | extrusion | [49] | ||
| surfactant | extrusion | [128] | ||
| PPC | CNC | masterbatch with PPC | mixing/injection moulding | [129] |
| PS | CNC | PEO/PEG grafting | extrusion | [130] |
| ionic liquids | extrusion | [131] | ||
| poly(S-co-BuA) | CNF | — | extrusion | [132] |
| CNC | — | extrusion/hot-pressing | [133] | |
| PU | CNC | reactive extrusion | extrusion | [134] |
| PVA | CNF | water-assisted extrusion | extrusion/foaming | [135] |
| CNC | water-assisted mixing | mixing/injection moulding | [136] | |
| PVAc | CNC | masterbatch | extrusion/hot-pressing | [137–139] |
| mixing in DMF | mixing/extrusion | [140] | ||
| starch | CNF | liquid feeding | extrusion/hot-pressing | [141] |
| — | extrusion/hot-pressing | [142] | ||
| CNC | — | extrusion | [143–145] | |
| — | mixing/hot-pressing | [146] | ||
| starch/PCL | CNC | — | extrusion | [144] |