Table 1.
General characteristics of the study participants stratified by coffee consumption category 1.
| Daily Coffee Consumption | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristics | None (n = 725) | <1 Cup/Day (n = 1646) | 1–2 Cups/Day (n = 1457) | 2–3 Cups/Day (n = 1178) | ≥3 Cups/Day (n = 989) | p for Trend 2 |
| Age (years) | 54.5 ± 8.3 | 53.4 ± 8.3 | 52.3 ± 8.2 | 50.2 ± 7.6 | 49.7 ± 7.4 | <0.001 |
| Education level | ||||||
| Under middle school | 168 (23.2) | 310 (18.8) | 202 (13.9) | 115 (9.8) | 100 (10.1) | <0.001 |
| High school | 282 (38.9) | 642 (39.0) | 584 (40.1) | 491 (41.7) | 406 (41.1) | |
| College or more | 236 (32.6) | 601 (36.5) | 609 (41.8) | 523 (44.4) | 446 (45.1) | |
| Missing 3 | 39 (5.4) | 93 (5.7) | 62 (4.3) | 49 (4.2) | 37 (3.7) | |
| Occupation | ||||||
| Managers and profession | 70 (9.7) | 161 (9.8) | 147 (10.1) | 173 (14.7) | 138 (14.0) | <0.001 |
| Office worker, sales, service | 130 (17.9) | 267 (16.2) | 333 (22.9) | 319 (27.1) | 296 (29.9) | |
| Laborers, agriculture | 22 (3.0) | 71 (4.3) | 56 (3.8) | 46 (3.9) | 51 (5.2) | |
| Not in labor force | 491 (67.7) | 1112 (67.6) | 899 (61.7) | 621 (52.7) | 483 (48.8) | |
| Missing 3 | 12 (1.7) | 35 (2.1) | 22 (1.5) | 19 (1.6) | 21 (2.1) | |
| Alcohol consumption | ||||||
| Non-drinker | 540 (74.5) | 1002 (60.9) | 793 (54.4) | 565 (48.0) | 416 (42.1) | <0.001 |
| Ex-drinker | 39 (5.4) | 97 (5.9) | 73 (5.0) | 58 (4.9) | 61 (6.2) | |
| Current drinker | 144 (19.9) | 544 (33.1) | 586 (40.2) | 553 (46.9) | 512 (51.8) | |
| Missing 3 | 2 (0.3) | 3 (0.2) | 5 (0.3) | 2 (0.2) | 0 (0.0) | |
| Smoking status | ||||||
| Non-smoker | 691 (95.3) | 1551 (94.2) | 1375 (94.4) | 1092 (92.7) | 873 (88.3) | <0.001 |
| Ex-smoker | 14 (1.9) | 53 (3.2) | 45 (3.1) | 49 (4.2) | 56 (5.7) | |
| Current smoker | 13 (1.8) | 34 (2.1) | 30 (2.1) | 30 (2.6) | 58 (5.9) | |
| Missing 3 | 7 (1.0) | 8 (0.5) | 7 (0.5) | 7 (0.6) | 2 (0.2) | |
| Regular exercise (yes) | 398 (54.9) | 925 (56.2) | 774 (53.1) | 564 (47.9) | 447 (45.2) | <0.001 |
| Age at menarche (years) | 14.9 ± 1.7 | 14.8 ± 1.7 | 14.7 ± 2.0 | 14.4 ± 1.7 | 14.5 ± 1.6 | <0.001 |
| Menopause (yes) | 523 (71.1) | 1094 (66.5) | 890 (61.1) | 598 (50.8) | 486 (49.1) | <0.001 |
| Age at menopause 4 (years) | 49.3 ± 4.8 | 49.2 ± 5.0 | 49.4 ± 4.8 | 49.4 ± 4.7 | 49.1 ± 4.8 | 0.845 |
| Postmenopausal hormone use 4 | ||||||
| Never | 341 (65.2) | 713 (65.2) | 597 (67.1) | 421 (70.4) | 353 (72.6) | 0.001 |
| Ever | 164 (31.4) | 345 (31.5) | 268 (30.1) | 156 (26.1) | 121 (24.9) | |
| Total caloric intake (kcal/day) | 1562.7 ± 603.1 | 1576.2 ± 586.2 | 1629.2 ± 554.4 | 1666.3 ± 573.0 | 1763.8 ± 661.6 | <0.001 |
| Coffee intake (cups/day) | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.4 ± 0.3 | 1.0 ± 0.1 | 2.0 ± 0.0 | 3.8 ± 1.1 | <0.001 |
| Coffee sugar addition (g/day) | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.9 ± 1.5 | 2.1 ± 2.2 | 4.2 ± 3.9 | 5.8 ± 6.2 | <0.001 |
| Coffee creamer addition (g/day) | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.5 ± 0.9 | 1.4 ± 1.8 | 3.1 ± 3.2 | 4.4 ± 5.0 | <0.001 |
1 Data presented as unadjusted mean ± SD for continuous variables or prevalence (%) for categorical variables; 2 p for trend was calculated using the Mantel–Haenszel χ2 test for categorical variables and generalized linear models for continuous variables; 3 Missing included no response or unwilling to respond; 4 In postmenopausal women.