Table 3.

Determinants of any ANC, ANC4+, institutional birth, and cesarean birth in Indonesia (1986–2012)

	Any ANC			ANC4+			Institutional birth			Cesarean birth
	% use	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)	% use	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)	% use	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)	% use	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (95% CI)
Survey year groups
1986–1989	79	Ref	Ref	56	Ref	Ref	20	Ref	Ref	1.3	Ref	Ref
1990–1993	86	1.53 (1.34–1.73)	1.35 (1.20–1.53)	63	1.34 (1.21–1.49)	1.19 (1.08–1.31)	18	0.88 (0.77–1.01)	0.69 (0.61–0.77)	2.4	1.89 (1.44–2.49)	1.71 (1.32–2.22)
1994–1997	92	2.85 (2.36–3.45)	2.34 (1.94–2.82)	70	1.83 (1.59–2.10)	1.45 (1.27–1.65)	21	1.04 (0.87–1.23)	0.73 (0.62–0.85)	4.4	3.56 (2.69–4.72)	2.96 (2.25–3.90)
1998–2001	77	0.86 (0.74–0.99)	0.47 (0.41–0.54)	67	1.58 (1.40–1.79)	0.94 (0.83–1.06)	39	2.48 (2.10–2.92)	1.53 (1.29–1.80)	3.7	2.96 (2.20–3.98)	1.87 (1.41–2.47)
2002–2005	79	0.93 (0.81–1.08)	0.52 (0.46–0.60)	68	1.65 (1.47–1.85)	0.95 (0.85–1.07)	44	3.10 (2.67–3.60)	2.01 (1.74–2.32)	5.9	4.84 (3.72–6.31)	3.00 (2.32–3.88)
2006–2009	82	1.17 (1.01–1.34)	0.84 (0.73–0.96)	74	2.17 (1.94–2.43)	1.36 (1.21–1.53)	55	4.86 (4.23–5.59)	2.16 (1.86–2.51)	10.3	8.91 (6.95–11.42)	4.04 (3.13–5.21)
2010–2012	93	3.38 (2.85–4.00)	3.04 (2.55–3.62)	85	4.34 (3.83–4.95)	3.24 (2.82–3.71)	68	8.16 (6.99–9.52)	3.27 (2.77–3.88)	13.2	11.75 (9.11–15.16)	4.82 (3.68–6.31)
Asset quintiles							0
Poorest	68	Ref	Ref	42	Ref	Ref	10	Ref	Ref	1.5	Ref	Ref
Poor	82	2.14 (1.96–2.34)	1.65 (1.20–1.53)	60	2.02 (1.87–2.19)	1.55 (1.43–1.67)	19	2.03 (1.81–2.28)	1.64 (1.46–1.85)	2.9	1.88 (1.49–2.36)	1.55 (1.23–1.95)
Middle	86	2.94 (2.67–3.23)	1.99 (1.77–2.23)	69	3.11 (2.87–3.36)	1.97 (1.81–2.14)	33	4.32 (3.85–4.84)	2.47 (2.20–2.76)	5.0	3.38 (2.73–4.19)	2.05 (1.64–2.57)
Rich	90	4.34 (3.91–4.82)	2.77 (2.45–3.13)	77	4.58 (4.19–4.99)	2.59 (2.35–2.85)	42	6.40 (5.66–7.24)	3.31 (2.91–3.76)	5.7	3.83 (3.10–4.74)	2.15 (1.70–2.71)
Richest	92	5.53 (4.92–6.21)	3.31 (2.88–3.80)	87	8.79 (7.94–9.73)	3.63 (3.22–4.08)	67	17.97 (15.82–20.42)	5.45 (4.75–6.25)	11.2	8.09 (6.57–9.97)	2.83 (2.23–3.60)
Maternal education							0
No education	63	Ref	Ref	36	Ref	Ref	7	Ref	Ref	1.1	Ref	Ref
Primary	83	2.90 (2.62–3.21)	1.94 (1.73–2.18)	62	2.87 (2.61–3.15)	1.78 (1.60–1.96)	19	3.00 (2.58–3.49)	1.45 (1.22–1.72)	2.6	2.42 (1.66–3.54)	1.54 (0.98–2.43)
Secondary	89	4.58 (4.09–5.14)	2.03 (1.78–2.30)	80	7.24 (6.54–8.02)	2.46 (2.19–2.76)	55	15.17 (13.01–17.68)	2.77 (2.31–3.33)	7.6	7.35 (5.09–10.62)	2.18 (1.36–3.49)
Higher	87	3.79 (3.27–4.38)	1.02 (0.85–1.23)	85	10.12 (8.83–11.61)	1.71 (1.43–2.03)	83	62.90 (52.10–75.95)	4.36 (3.46–5.50)	20.0	22.48 (15.33–32.96)	3.12 (1.89–5.15)
Paternal education							0
No education	64	Ref	Ref	37	Ref	Ref	8	Ref	Ref	1.5	Ref	Ref
Primary	82	2.61 (2.32–2.94)	1.58 (1.39–1.81)	60	2.55 (2.28–2.86)	1.46 (1.28–1.65)	19	2.74 (2.27–3.32)	1.18 (0.95–1.45)	2.6	1.74 (1.11–2.71)	0.93 (0.55–1.59)
Secondary	88	4.20 (3.69–4.77)	1.84 (1.59–2.11)	78	5.95 (5.27–6.71)	1.92 (1.68–2.18)	50	11.72 (9.65–14.22)	1.82 (1.47–2.26)	6.9	4.79 (3.03–7.56)	1.11 (0.64–1.92)
Higher	88	4.18 (3.56–4.91)	1.56 (1.28–1.90)	85	9.81 (8.43–11.41)	1.96 (1.63–2.35)	78	41.01 (33.13–50.77)	2.64 (2.07–3.37)	17.2	13.33 (8.38–21.20)	1.58 (0.91–2.76)
Age group of the mother (years)							0
10–19	86	Ref	Ref	61	Ref	Ref	23	Ref	Ref	2.6	Ref	Ref
20–29	85	0.94 (0.81–1.10)	2.51 (2.09–3.02)	70	1.47 (1.32–1.65)	2.47 (2.17–2.82)	34	1.72 (1.49–1.99)	1.44 (1.21–1.71)	4.4	1.75 (1.30–2.36)	1.60 (1.18–2.19)
30–39	83	0.80 (0.68–0.94)	4.80 (3.93–5.83)	68	1.38 (1.22–1.55)	4.55 (3.93–5.27)	38	2.09 (1.80–2.42)	2.20 (1.82–2.66)	6.7	2.70 (2.01–3.63)	3.04 (2.20–4.19)
40–49	78	0.59 (0.49–0.71)	6.32 (5.00–8.00)	59	0.93 (0.82–1.07)	5.85 (4.93–6.96)	31	1.47 (1.25–1.74)	2.75 (2.19–3.45)	6.6	2.68 (1.94–3.72)	5.12 (3.51–7.46)
Birth order							0			0.0
1	95	Ref	Ref	83	Ref	Ref	45	Ref	Ref	7.5	Ref	Ref
2	84	0.26 (0.24–0.27)	0.21 (0.19–0.22)	71	0.51 (0.49–0.54)	0.43 (0.41–0.45)	41	0.85 (0.80–0.90)	0.75 (0.70–0.82)	6.1	0.79 (0.71–0.89)	0.65 (0.57–0.74)
3	81	0.21 (0.19–0.22)	0.15 (0.13–0.17)	65	0.39 (0.38–0.41)	0.31 (0.29–0.33)	34	0.64 (0.60–0.69)	0.58 (0.53–0.64)	5.0	0.64 (0.56–0.73)	0.52 (0.44–0.61)
4	79	0.18 (0.17–0.20)	0.12 (0.11–0.14)	61	0.32 (0.30–0.34)	0.26 (0.24–0.28)	26	0.43 (0.39–0.47)	0.47 (0.42–0.53)	3.4	0.42 (0.35–0.51)	0.38 (0.31–0.48)
5	76	0.15 (0.14–0.17)	0.10 (0.09–0.11)	54	0.24 (0.23–0.26)	0.20 (0.18–0.21)	20	0.31 (0.28–0.35)	0.41 (0.36–0.48)	2.6	0.32 (0.25–0.41)	0.33 (0.25–0.43)
≥6	69	0.11 (0.10–0.12)	0.06 (0.05–0.07)	42	0.15 (0.14–0.16)	0.11 (0.11–0.12)	14	0.19 (0.17–0.21)	0.30 (0.25–0.36)	2.2	0.27 (0.21–0.36)	0.30 (0.21–0.43)
Religion	0						0
Islam	85	Ref	Ref	67	Ref	Ref	28	Ref	Ref	3.6	Ref	Ref
Others	81	0.75 (0.69–0.81)	0.57 (0.53–0.63)	70	1.15 (1.07–1.24)	0.72 (0.67–0.77)	53	2.94 (2.68–3.24)	1.91 (1.71–2.14)	9.9	2.91 (2.60–3.26)	1.38 (1.19–1.59)
Area of residence							0			0.0
Java and Bali	88	Ref	Ref	74	Ref	Ref	40	Ref	Ref	5.9	Ref	Ref
Sumatera	82	0.62 (0.56–0.68)	0.87 (0.79–0.97)	63	0.59 (0.54–0.64)	0.74 (0.68–0.80)	32	0.70 (0.63–0.77)	0.79 (0.71–0.89)	5.4	0.90 (0.80–1.02)	1.12 (0.99–1.26)
Nusa Tenggara	74	0.39 (0.34–0.44)	0.95 (0.82–1.10)	56	0.43 (0.38–0.48)	0.90 (0.80–1.02)	23	0.43 (0.37–0.51)	0.74 (0.63–0.87)	3.1	0.50 (0.40–0.62)	0.82 (0.66–1.01)
Kalimantan	80	0.53 (0.47–0.60)	0.88 (0.77–1.01)	63	0.57 (0.51–0.64)	0.85 (0.76–0.94)	24	0.47 (0.41–0.53)	0.51 (0.44–0.59)	4.3	0.71 (0.60–0.84)	0.97 (0.81–1.15)
Sulawesi	78	0.48 (0.43–0.54)	0.79 (0.70–0.89)	64	0.39 (0.35–0.43)	0.52 (0.47–0.58)	27	0.54 (0.47–0.62)	0.61 (0.52–0.71)	3.8	0.62 (0.53–0.73)	0.82 (0.70–0.97)
Maluku and Papua	61	0.21 (0.17–0.26)	0.45 (0.36–0.55)	47	0.30 (0.25–0.36)	0.52 (0.45–0.60)	21	0.39 (0.31–0.49)	0.42 (0.34–0.51)	3.4	0.56 (0.45–0.69)	0.76 (0.61–0.94)
Place of residence							0
Rural	81	Ref	Ref	61	Ref	Ref	20	Ref	Ref	3.1	Ref	Ref
Urban	89	1.80 (1.66–1.96)	1.11 (1.02–1.21)	81	2.67 (2.46–2.89)	1.31 (1.21–1.41)	61	6.52 (5.90–7.20)	3.00 (2.70–3.33)	9.1	3.10 (2.75–3.48)	1.45 (1.28–1.64)

Abbreviations: ANC, antenatal care; OR, odds ratio.