Table 2.

Biosensors constructed for AID biomarker detection.

Disease	Biomarker	Biosensor Type	LOD	Ref.
APS	Multidetection of anti-β2-GPI antibody, anti-cardiolipin antibody, anti-phospholipid antibody, and anti-prothrombin antibody	Optical sensor	ND	[91]
	anti-β2-GPI antibody	Reflectometric interference spectroscopy	5.62 mg L−1	[92]
		SPR	ND	[93]
	Multidetection of anti-β2-GPI antibody, prothrombin, cardiolipin, and β2-GPI/cardiolipin complex	Reflectometric interference spectroscopy	ND	[94]
RA	anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP) autoantibody	EC	ND	[95]
		Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)	13 pg mL−1	[96]
		PL	0.1 ng mL−1	[97]
		piezoelectric	ND	[98]
		SPR	ND	[99]
SLE	Multidetection of anti-FLAG antibody, anti-Ro52 antibody, anti-U1-70K antibody, anti-K5Ac antibody, and anti-K20Ac antibody	Magneto resistive	ND	[101]
	anti-TRIM21 and anti-TROVE2 circulating autoantibodies	Piezoelectric	1.51 U mL−1 and 0.32 U mL−1	[102]
	anti-DNA autoantibody	EC	ND	[103]
		SPR	ND	[104]
		SPR	ND	[105]
		Piezoelectric	ND	[106]
	anti-chromatin autoantibody	EC	ND	[107]
MS	anti-glucopeptide antibody	SPR	ND	[108]
	anti-CSF114(Glc) antibodies	EC	ND	[109]
		SPR	ND	[110]
	anti-myelin basic protein (anti-MBP)	EC	0.1528 ng mL−1	[111]
CD	Multidetection of anti- GA and anti-tTG autoantibodies	EC	2.45 U mL−1 for tTG IgA and 2.95 U mL−1 for tTG IgG	[112]
	anti-GA autoantibodies	EC	0.52 arbitrary units mL−1	[113]
		EC	46 ng mL−1	[114]
		EC	9.1 U mL−1 for IgA and 9.0 U mL−1 for IgG	[115]
		Piezoelectric	100 nM	[116]
	anti-tTG autoantibodies	EC	260 ng mL−1	[117]
		EC	1.7 AU mL−1 for IgA and 2.7 AU mL−1 for IgG	[118]
		EC	ND	[119]
		EC	390 ng mL−1	[120]
		EC	20 A.U.	[121]
		EC	30 pM	[122]
		EC	ND	[123]
		Piezoelectric	1.3 μg mL−1	[124]