TABLE 6.

Illustrative examples of biomarkers of cardiovascular effects

Decreased heart rate variability

Changes in ECG depolarisation and repolarisation

Increased carotid intima-media thickness

Increased coronary artery calcification

Carotid artery stenosis

Increased aortic calcification

Increased arterial stiffness

Impaired vascular endothelial function

Impaired vascular fibrinolysis

Increased platelet adhesiveness or activation

Increased thrombogenicity

Increased markers of systemic inflammation, endothelial function, nitric oxide metabolism, oxidation etc.