Table 1.

Effects of EPAC1 on experimental neointimal hyperplasia.

Experimental Model	Treatments	Effects
Carotid arteries and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from wild type (WT) and EPAC1 −/− mice.	Ligation of carotid arteries and pharmacological inhibition of EPAC1	Neointima formation and VSMC proliferation were reduced in EPAC1 −/− mice. ESI09 also reduced neointima formation [60].
VSMCs from thoracic aorta explants from WT and EPAC1 −/− mice.	Injury of femoral artery	Reduced neointima formation and reduced migration of VSMCs in EPAC1 −/− mice [61].
Human saphenous vein VSMCs	Effects of pharmacological EPAC activation on VSMC migration	EPAC activation reduced VSMC migration and serum-induced vessel wall thickening [49].
Rat VSMCs from aorta explants.	Phamacological activation of EPAC and PKA	A combination of EPAC and PKA activation inhibited serum-induced VSMC proliferation [50].
VSMCs from foetal and adult rat aorta.	Pharmacological activation of EPAC and adenovirus-mediated overexpression of EPAC1	EPAC activation and overexpression of EPAC1 enhanced intimal thickening in aorta and VSMC proliferation [62].
Primary aortic VSMCs from male rats	Pharmacological activation of EPAC and PKA	PKA and EPAC work cooperatively to inhibit VSMC migration [63].