Table 1.

TWIST1 induced pathways and proteins in GBM.

Protein/Pathway	Role
Periostin	Recruitment of M2 tumor-associated macrophages which are tumor-supportive and immunosuppressive [130].
Fibronectin 1	Promotes cell cohesion and invasion of basement membrane [131].
SPARC	Upholds ECM degradation through the uPA-uPAR pathway and stimulates survival, proliferation and invasion via the PI3K pathway [132].
SNAI2	Inhibits miR-34 activity, a regulatory microRNA for differentiation, promoting stemness [133,134].
ID1	Activates tumor progression pathways, such as Snail, ERK1/2 and AKT, and promotes stem cell self-renewal transcription factors Sox2, Oct3/4 and Nanog [135].
HGF	Promotes survival, proliferation, transformation and invasion through activation of the PI3K/AKT, STAT3/JNK, SOS/RAS/ERK/MAPK pathways [136].
LOX	Activates HIF-1α (via AKT pathway in a positive feed-back loop), FAK and VEGF gene expression [137].
Cadherin 11	Regulates cell-cell interactions and survival, and promotes cell migration [138].
BMI1/EZH2	Part of the Polycomb repressive complex 1 and 2, in that order, promotes gene silencing of the P16 and P14 tumor suppressors, and inhibits cancer stem cells differentiation [139].