Table 1.

Summary of some major functional foods, their biological effects and signaling mechanisms

Food	Functional compound	Biological function	Signaling pathways or mechanisms	Reference
Ginger	Ginger extract	Anti-obesity/Anti-inflammatory	↑ PPAR-δ	42
	Gingerols	Anti-inflammatory	↓ PGEs, COX1&2, lipoxygenase, leukotrienes, PG synthetase	43, 45
	Zingerone	Anti-inflammatory	↓ NF-κB	48
Turmeric	Curcumin	Anti-inflammatory	↓ Phosphorylation of MAPK, Wnt/β-catenin, NF-κB, PAI-1	57, 58, 60, 61
			↑ Adiponectin	61
		Anti-obesity	↓ FASN	59
			↑ FA oxidation, AMPK	57, 51
Garlic	Garlic extract	Anti-obesity	↓ Adipose tissue, TG, Free FA, weight gain, SREBP-1C, PPAR-γ	68, 69, 71
		Anti-inflammatory	↑ IL-10	74
			↓ TNF-α, IL-1α, IFN-γ	74
	Alliin	Anti-inflammatory	↓ Phosphorylation of ERK1/2, IL-6, MCP-1	73
Soy beans	Isoflavones (soy proteins)	Anti-obesity	↓ Regulate adipose tissue body weight, BMI, adiposity, fat pad, SREBP-1C, ACC, FASN	78, 80, 81, 88, 90, 91, 93
		Anti-inflammatory	↓ TNF-α, MCP-1, IL-6, lipid accumulation	85, 86, 94
			↑ Adiponectin	88
Bilberry	Polyphenols1)	Anti-inflammatory	↓ Adipocyte differentiation, PPAR, SREBP-1C, NF-κB, CRP, IL-6, IL-15	96, 97
Grape	Polyphenol (procyanidin)	Anti-inflammatory	↓ NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-6	98, 99
			↑ Adiponectin
Grape, wine	Resveratrol	Anti-obesity	↓ Lipogenesis	101
			↑ FA oxidation
Strawberry	Anthocyanins2)	Anti-inflammatory	↓ IL-6	102
Blueberries	Anthocyanins2)	Anti-inflammatory	↓ NF-κB, IL-6, TNF-α, CRP	103
			↑ Adiponectin
Red sweet cherries	Anthocyanins	Anti-inflammatory	↓ Inflammation	104, 105
		Anti-obesity	↓ Obesity	105
Tart cherry	Anthocyanins	Anti-inflammatory/Anti-obesity	↓ NF-κB, adiposity	106
Omega-3-fatty acids	ALA	Anti-inflammatory	↓ IL-6, TNF-α, IL1-β, XBP1, sXBP1	108, 112
	EPA	Anti-inflammatory	↓ PGE2, COX, MCP-1, IL-6, TNF-α, TLRs, NF-κB	120, 125, 126
	DHA		↑ GPR120, PPAR-γ, adiponectin	14, 121, 122
		Anti-obesity	↑ Mitochondrial biogenesis, β-oxidation, AMPK	117, 118, 123, 107, 106
			↓ Adiposity, lipogenesis, visceral fat, body weight	14, 116

PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor; PGE, prostaglandin E; COX, cyclooxygenase; PG, prostaglandin; NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1; FASN, fatty acid synthase; FA, fatty acid; AMPK, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; TG, triglyceride; SREBP-1C, sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1C; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; IL, interleukin; IFN, interferons; ERK, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein; BMI, body mass index; ACC, acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase; CRP, C-reactive protein; ALA, α-linolenic acid; XBP, X-box-binding protein; sXBP, spliced X-box-binding protein; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; GPR120, G-protein coupled receptor 120.

¹⁾Anthocyanidins, quercetin, epicatechin, and resveratrol.

²⁾Pelargonidin sulfate and pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside.