Table 7.

Active ingredients, functions and mechanisms of Cistanche Salsa with anti-aging and anti-aging related effects.

Active ingredient	Function	Mechanism	Refs.
Ethanol extract of Cistanche Salsa	Anti-osteoporosis effect	suppress bone weight loss	[118]
	Anti-proliferative effect	decrease prostate weight, serum dihydrotestosterone concentration, and mRNA expression of 5α-reductase type 1 and type 2, regulate the expression levels of inflammatory-related proteins and apoptosis-associated proteins	[119]
Phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs)	Neuroprotective effect	prevent cell apoptosis, protect dopaminergic neurons against dopamine neurotoxicity induced by MPTP	[120-121]
Echinacoside	Lifespan extension	protect cells from DNA damage, trigger cells in the G1 phase to enter the S phase and G2 phase, improve ROS degradation	[122-124]
		protect neuronal cells from apoptosis
		maintain mitochondrial function, decrease the generation of ROS, increase the expression of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 and inhibit caspase-3 activity
	Anti-inflammatory effect	reduce inflammatory markers, including myeloperoxidase, extracellular nucleosomes, high-mobility group box 1, and inflammatory cytokines	[126]
	Neuroprotective effect	inhibit caspase-3 and caspase-8 activation in cerebellar granule neurons	[127-130]
		reduce ROS production, attenuate neurotoxicity mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammatory responses induced by 6-OHDA
		suppress expression of apoptotic genes
		inhibit generation of MPP+-induced ROS
		decrease striatal extracellular levels of DA, DOPAC and HVA
	Anti-neurodegenerative effect	attenuate neurotoxicity mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammatory responses	[123,125,127-128]
		suppress dopaminergic neuron loss caused by MPP+ or MPTP
		maintain dopamine content and dopamine metabolite content
		increase striatal dopamine and dopamine metabolite levels
		inhibit apoptosis and activation of microglia and astrocytes in the substantia nigra
		regulate cytokines such as p38 MAPK and NF-κB p52 subunit
	Anti-oxidant effect	decrease generation of ROS and protect oxidative-stress-induced toxic injuries	[124]
	Anti-neoplastic effect	inhibit prostate cancer cell proliferation	[132,133]
		modulate MAPK activity
Acteoside	Skin-protective effect	enhance scavenging activity of ROS, decrease Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and downregulate activity of pro caspase-3	[135]
		modulate the MAPK signaling pathway
	Neuroprotective effect	inhibit neuronal death induced by MPP+ and glutamate	[134]
Tubuloside B	Neuroprotective effect	inhibit cell apoptosis, attenuate MPP+ induced cytotoxicity, DNA fragmentation, and intracellular accumulation of ROS, anti-oxidative stress effects, maintenance of mitochondria function, decrease of concentration of free intracellular calcium, inhibition of caspase-3 activity	[136,137]
(2E,6R)-8-Hydroxy-2,6-dimethyl-2-octenoic acid [(R)-HDOA]	Anti-osteoporosis effect	decrease bone weight and mechanical strength	[133]