Table 5.
Associations between social capital variables and hypertension detection, treatment and control (among all hypertensive participants) in LMICs and LICs only by urban-rural location, ordinary least-square estimates from model specification including individual controls†, community controls‡ and community fixed effects
| Dimension of social capital | Hypertension detection | Hypertension treatment | Hypertension control | |||
| Urban | Rural | Urban | Rural | Urban | Rural | |
| Membership | ||||||
| Coefficient | 0.024 | 0.033 | 0.028 | 0.024 | 0.025* | 0.030 |
| SE | (0.018) | (0.020) | (0.017) | (0.020) | (0.012) | (0.016) |
| Observations | 6163 | 4304 | 6163 | 4304 | 6163 | 4304 |
| R2 | 0.083 | 0.100 | 0.091 | 0.096 | 0.019 | 0.023 |
| P value for difference in coefficients§ | 0.7368 | 0.8946 | 0.7694 | |||
| Trust in people | ||||||
| Coefficient | 0.000 | −0.005 | 0.007 | −0.011 | 0.006 | −0.007 |
| SE | (0.011) | (0.013) | (0.011) | (0.011) | (0.006) | (0.005) |
| Observations | 13 330 | 10 454 | 13 330 | 10 454 | 13 330 | 10 454 |
| R2 | 0.054 | 0.067 | 0.059 | 0.069 | 0.012 | 0.014 |
| P value for difference in coefficients§ | 0.7560 | 0.2363 | 0.0936 | |||
| Trust in organisations | ||||||
| Coefficient | 0.019 | 0.057* | 0.007 | −0.007 | 0.016 | 0.003 |
| SE | (0.034) | (0.029) | (0.039) | (0.028) | (0.032) | (0.016) |
| Observations | 13 311 | 10 445 | 13 311 | 10 445 | 13 311 | 10 445 |
| R2 | 0.054 | 0.067 | 0.059 | 0.069 | 0.012 | 0.014 |
| P value for difference in coefficients § | 0.3873 | 0.7619 | 0.7097 | |||
*P<0.05, when testing hypothesis that coefficient is equal to 0.
†Individual and household controls include sex, age, marital status, dummies for highest level of education obtained, dummies for household wealth quintiles, urban-rural location, current or recent history of tobacco use, alcohol user, diabetes, depression, obesity, pregnancy, recent loss of employment, dummies for country and year of data collection.
‡Community controls include availability of any public health facility, any private health facility, availability of any antihypertensive medications at a retail pharmacy, number of different antihypertensive medication categories available at a retail pharmacy, presence of electric street lighting, presence of any traffic lights and completeness of paved roads.
§P value from Chow test for the equality of coefficients between HIC and UMIC vs LMIC and LIC groups.
HIC, high-income countries; LIC, low-income countries; LMIC, lower-middle-income countries; UMIC, upper-middle-income countries.