Table 1.
Growth factors commonly used in orthopedic tissue engineering applications. See the following reviews for more on specific growth factors. See the following reviews for more on growth factors.[106–108,200] ? indicates that no native study on these growth factors has been performed; however, tissue engineering applications have been performed using these growth factors and they are believed to play a role.
| Native Expression | Tissue Engineering Applications | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Growth Plate | Bone | Tendon | Ligament | Cartilage | Meniscus | Growth Factor | Isoform | Effect |
| X | X | X | Bone Morphogenic Proteins (BMPs) | BMP-2 | Stem cell proliferation and differentiation into osteoblasts [49,53,138,144,193] Stimulate bone formation and mineralization [49,53,130,138,143,193] |
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| BMP-6 | Enhance effect of TGF-β3 [194] Increase collagen production [86] | |||||||
| BMP-7 | Stimulate bone formation and mineralization [139] | |||||||
| X | X | X | X | X | X | Transforming Grown Factor-β (TGF-β) | TGF-β1 | Encourages chondrogenesis [53,195,196] Increased production of collagen and GAGs [53,136,140,197] Increases proliferation [129,135,140] Under certain conditions can be osteogenic and associate with hypertrophy [49,129,156] |
| TGF-β3 | Encourages chondrogenesis [68,78,86,91,142] Increased production of collagen and GAGs[68,78,86,91,142,194] Enhance hypertrophic chondrocyte phenotype [156] |
|||||||
| Growth and Differentiation Factor (GDF) | GDF-5 | Encourages chondrogenesis and tenogensis Increased ECM deposition[114,115] | ||||||
| X | X | X | X | X | ? | Insulin-like Growth Factor | IGF-I | Stimulates proteoglycan synthesis [133,197,198] Enhance effect of TGF-β3 [194] |
| X | X | X | X | X | ? | Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF) | Basic FGF bFGF or FGF-2 | Enhances proliferation [128,140] Enhance chondrogenesis [140] Increase collagen production [128] |
| X | X | X | X | X | X | Platelet-derived Growth Factor (PDGF) | PDGF-BB | Enhances proliferation [128] Enhances tenogenesis [144] Boost ECM deposition for tendon and ligament regeneration [128,144,199] |
| X | X | X | X | X | Vascular Endothelial Growth factor (VEGF) | VEGF | Increases vascularization [193] Enhances bone formation [130,193] |
|