Table 3.
Patient-related factors
| Studies | Year | Sample size | Participants | Disease (type, duration, age at onset) | DA drug (molecule, dosage, duration) | Design | Objectives | Main results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pontone et al. [85] | 2006 | 100 | PD patients (PD + ICD: 9 patients) | PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset: 44.3 (±9) vs. 48.6 (±9) years Mean duration: 4.6 (±62.2) vs. 6.2 (±5.5) years |
Pramipexole, ropinirole, amantadine, entacapone, selegiline, l-dopa PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: l-dopa dose = 627 (±281) vs. 520 (±450) mg |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Discrete symptoms of depressed mood, irritability, appetite changes, and disinhibition |
| Giladi et al. [105] | 2007 | 383 | 193 PD patients (PD + ICD: 27 patients; PD–ICD: 166 patients) 190 age- and gender-matched HCs |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset: 51.5 (±12.2) vs. 58.7 (±12.1) years Mean duration: 10.3 (±4.9) vs. 9.7 (±6.6) years |
Ropinirole, pergolide, cabergoline, apomorphine, amandatine, selegiline, entacapone | Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Male gender |
| Crockford et al. [87] | 2008 | 140 | Not demented patients, with moderate to severe PD | PD | Pramipexole, ropinirole, pergolide, bromocriptine, l-dopa LEDD = 707 (±402) mg |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of problem gambling and PG | Younger age No significant association with psychiatric/SUD co-morbidity |
| Fan et al. [88] | 2009 | 444 | 312 PD patients (PD + ICD: 11 patients; PD–ICD: 301 patients) 132 controls (spouses/caregivers of the patients) |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset: 58.7 (±6.7) vs. 60.1 (±10.6) years Mean duration: 5.3 (±2.5) vs. 5.7 (±2.9) years |
l-Dopa, piribedil, pramipexole, amantadine, pergolide, ergocriptine, bromocriptine PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Total LEDD (mg) = 487 (±289) vs. 392 (±224) |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Alcohol daily use |
| Weintraub et al. [84] | 2010 | 3090 | DOMINION study | PD | DAAs and/or l-dopa (n = 3031) DAAs (mean daily dosage and LEDDs): Pramipexole 3.1 (±1.7) and 306.9 (±168.2) mg Ropinirole: 11.1 (±6.6) and 277.9 (± 164.9) mg Pergolide: 2.9 (±1.7) and 286.6 (±169.3) mg |
Cross-sectional Case-control (matching on age, sex, and DAA treatment) |
To determine the correlates of ICDs | Living in the USA Younger age Being unmarried Current nicotine use Family history of gambling problems |
| Cilia et al. [128] | 2010 | 43 | 29 PD patients: 8 PD with PG 21 PD–ICD (matched for demographic, clinical features, and mean daily DRT intake) 14 HCs |
PD PD + PG vs. PD–ICD: Mean duration: 6 (±2) vs. 6 (±2) years |
l-Dopa + DAAs PD + PG vs. PD–ICD: Total LEDD (mg) = 831 (±294) vs. 852 (±301) DAA-LEDD (mg) = 241 (±118) vs. 252 (±121) |
Cross-sectional Case-control Imaging study (SPECT of DAT) |
To investigate the underlying neurobiology | DAT density differed between the 3 groups in both dorsal and ventral striata bilaterally Post hoc analysis: reduced tracer binding in the ventral striatum for PD with PG compared to PD without ICD |
| Lee et al. [102] | 2010 | 1167 | PG patients | PD Mean age at onset: 58.3 (±10.5) years Mean duration: 6.6 (±4.3) years |
Stable DRT for at least 3 months Mean duration of DRT: 5.0 years (±3.8) |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICRBs | Univariate analysis: male gender for gambling and sexuality |
| Pourcher et al. [123] | 2010 | 97 | 97 RLS patients: 32 untreated patients without compulsions 53 DAA-treated patients without compulsions 12 DAA-treated patients with compulsions |
RLS | Stable DAA (average dose 0.52 mg pramipexole equivalent) | Longitudinal T1: baseline T2: 4 months T3: 8 months |
To determine the correlates of motor/behavioral compulsions | More stress, depression, and sleep problems |
| Voon et al. [122] | 2011 | 564 | 564 PD patients: 282 with ICDs 282 No-ICD (matching on age, gender, and DAA treatment) |
PD | DAAs ± l-dopa | Cross-sectional Case-control (DOMINION study) |
To determine the correlates of ICDs | Higher depression, anxiety, and obsessive–compulsive symptoms scores Higher novelty-seeking and impulsivity scores Greater choice impulsivity |
| Voon et al. [70] | 2011 | 140 | RLS ± ICD | RLS | DAAs (ropinirole 2–4.5 mg/day: n = 3; pramipexole 0.72–1.4 mg/day: n = 3; lisuride 2.5 mg/day: n = 1; cabergoline 3 mg/day: n = 1) l-dopa 100 mg/day: n = 3 |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Female gender History of experimental drug use Family history of gambling disorders |
| Auyeung et al. [136] | 2011 | 213 | PD patients (PD + ICD: 198 patients; PD–ICD: 15 patients) | PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset: 45.7 (±5.6) vs. 59 (±10.8) years Mean duration: 13.5 (±5.6) vs. 8.9 (±4.8) years |
Bromocriptine, ropinirole, pramipexole, rotigotine, l-dopa PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: DAA-LEDD = 277 (±147) vs. 85 (±98) mg Total LEDD = 1215 (±635) vs. 634 (±330) mg |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | History of anxiety and depression |
| Lim et al. [137] | 2011 | 200 | 200 PD patients | PD | Piribedil, pramipexole, ropinirole, bromocriptine, amantadine Low dosages of DRT |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Male gender |
| Vallelunga et al. [168] | 2011 | 89 | 89 PD patients: 48 No-ICD 41 with ICDs |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset: 52.7 (±10.1) vs. 57.3 (±10.7) years Mean duration: 9 (±4.4) vs. 11.4 (±7.8) years |
PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD:
DAA use: 40/41 vs. 38/48 DAA-LEDD = 168 (±114) vs. 124 (±114) mg |
Cross-sectional Case-control study |
To determine the correlates of ICDs |
Univariate analysis: Younger age |
| O’Sullivan et al. [131] | 2011 | 18 | 18 PD patients: 7 No-ICD 11 with ICDs |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset: 45.1 (±11.2) vs. 47 (±8.8) years Mean duration: 11.9 (±11.3) vs. 10.7 (±6.4) years |
PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD:
DAA-LEDD = 62 (±92) vs. 241 (±143) mg LEDD = 636 (±325) vs. 708 (±319) mg |
Cross-sectional Case-control study 3 11C-raclopride PET scans |
To determine the correlates of ICDs |
PD patients with ICDs vs. without: No significant differences in baseline dopamine D2 receptor availability Greater reduction of ventral striatum 11C-raclopride binding potential following reward-related cue exposure, relative to neutral cue exposure, following l-dopa challenge |
| Limotai et al. [77] | 2012 | 1 040 | PD patients, excluding those who were never exposed to DAA (PD + ICD: 89 patients; PD–ICD: 951 patients) | PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset: 52 (±10) vs. 59.7 (±12) years Mean duration: 11.5 (±6.1) vs. 11.3 (±6.8) years |
PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD:
LEDD = 971 (±663) vs. 672 (±512) mg DAA-LEDD = 292 (±184) vs. 142 (±176) mg Total LEDD = 1122 (±644) vs. 779 (±543) mg |
Retrospective (cohort) | To determine the correlates of DAWS, DDS, and ICDs |
Univariate analysis concerning ICDs: Male gender Younger age |
| Leroi et al. [76] | 2012 | 99 | 99 PD patients: 35 PD + ICD 26 PD + apathy 38 control PD |
PD | 57.6% were taking DRT | Cross-sectional Case-control |
To determine the correlates of ICDs and apathy |
Univariate analysis: PD + ICD vs. PD + apathy Higher level of anxiety. |
| Joutsa et al. [100] | 2012 | 270 | 270 PD patients: 135 no ICD 22 novel ICD 31 resolved ICD 82 stable ICD |
PD | DAAs, l-dopa MAO-B inhibitor |
Longitudinal T1: baseline T2: follow-up (15 months later) |
To determine the correlates of ICDs |
Resolution of ICD: Female gender Development of a novel ICD: Concurrent increase in depression scores |
| Joutsa et al. [66] | 2012 | 575 | 575 PD patients | PD | DA–l-dopa MAO-B inhibitor |
Cross-sectional Postal survey |
To determine the correlates of ICDs | Higher depression score Male gender Age ≤65 years |
| Perez-Lloret et al. [103] | 2012 | 255 | 203 PD patients (PD + ICD: 52 patients; PD–ICD: 151 patients) 52 post-stroke patients |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean duration: 9.4 (±0.7) vs. 8.8 (±0.5) years |
DAA, l-dopa, MAO-B inhibitors, entacapone, amantadine PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: LEDD ≥1050 mg: 63% vs. 42% |
Cross-sectional Case-control |
To determine the correlates of ICDs | Age <68 years |
| Ray et al. [132] | 2012 | 14 | 14 PD patients: 7 PD with PG 7 PD without PG |
PD | Patients withheld DRT for 12 h prior to the PET scans, and were given 1 mg of pramipexole 1 h prior to the scan | Cross-sectional PET coupled with gambling task |
To investigate the underlying neurobiology | PD patients with PG have dysfunctional activation of DA autoreceptors in the midbrain and low DA tone in the ACC |
| Shotbolt et al. [117] | 2012 | 50 | 50 PD patients with a pre-operative assessment | PD | DBS | Longitudinal | To discuss ICD/DDS and DBS pre-operative and post-operative relationships |
Univariate analysis: Patients with ICDs and/or DDS: Younger age Male gender |
| Rana et al. [78] | 2013 | 140 | 140 PD patients | PD | Amantadine, pramipexole, l-dopa | Retrospective chart review | To determine the correlates of ICDs | 5 common variables among the patients who developed ICDs, including male gender |
| Valença et al. [90] | 2013 | 364 | 152 PD patients (PD + ICD: 28 patients; PD–ICD: 124 patients) 212 HCs |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean duration: 7.4 (±4.2) vs. 7.2 (±5.5) years |
Pramipexole, amantadine, selegiline, l-dopa PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Daily pramipexole dosage = 2.9 (±1.2) vs. 0.85 (±1.4) mg LEDD = 732 (±404) vs. 644 (±397) mg |
Cross-sectional Case-control |
To determine the correlates of ICDs | History of smoking |
| Kim et al. [119] | 2013 | 297 | 297 PD patients | PD | Stable DRT for at least 3 months | Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICRBs (ICDs, RB and DDS) |
ICDs: Younger age Higher co-morbid RB and DDS |
| Bastiaens et al. [68] | 2013 | 46 | PD without previous history of ICDs, who were taking a DAA | PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD (baseline): Mean age at onset (years): 57 (±10) vs. 57 (±9) Mean duration (years): 4 (1–19) vs. 5 (0–14) Motor complications: 61% vs. 25% |
DAAs PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD (follow-up): Peak DAA-LEDD (mg, median) = 300 (75–450) vs. 165 (50–400) |
Longitudinal (4-year prospective cohort study) | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Cigarette smoking Caffeine use Non-significant results: SUD, anxiety, or depression scores |
| Kim et al. [135] | 2013 | 89 | 89 PD patients with bilateral STN DBS surgery | PD | Bilateral STN DBS surgery | Longitudinal T1: baseline T2: follow-up (12 months after surgery) |
To determine the effect of STN DBS on ICRB | Severity of ICRB worsened more after DBS in older patients |
| Poletti et al. [97] | 2013 | 805 | 805 PD patients 593 cognitively preserved 212 demented |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset (years): 57 (±12) vs. 66 (±11) Mean duration (years): 10 (±6) vs. 10 (±7) |
l-Dopa, DAAs, amantadine, rasagiline | Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Male gender Younger age |
| Garcia-Ruiz et al. [92] | 2014 | 233 | 233 PD patients | PD Mean duration: 5.9 ± 4.1 years |
Oral (n = 197): Pramipexole Ropinirole Transdermal (n = 36): Rotigotine |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Younger age |
| Sachdeva et al. [81] | 2014 | 73 | 73 PD patients: 20 with CSB 11 with ICD with no CSB 42 PD controls |
PD PD + CSB vs. PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean duration (months): 96 (±48) vs. 72 (±72) vs. 72 (±66) |
PD + CSB vs. PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD:
LEDD = 941 (±668) vs. 800 (±619) vs. 706 (±693) mg |
Cross-sectional Case-control |
To determine the correlates of CSB |
PD ± CSB vs. PD controls: Higher anxiety score PD ± CSB vs. PD ± ICB and PD controls: More open to new experiences (NEO–FFI) Less agreeable (NEO–FFI) |
| Wu et al. [171] | 2014 | 68 | 29 PD + ICD + PIU 19 PD 20 HCs |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset (years): 51.2 (±12) vs. 53.2 (±10) Mean duration (years): 12.4 (±8) vs. 10.4 (±6.2) |
PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD:
DAA-LEDD = 349 (±307) vs. 537 (±329) mg LEDD = 324 (±203) vs. 232 (±329) mg Total LEDD = 673 (±310) vs. 769 (±322) mg |
Cross-sectional | To explore Internet use in PD patients with and without ICDs |
PD ± ICD ± PIU:
Higher score in the Y-BOCS-Internet questionnaire |
| Bancos et al. [74] | 2014 | 147 | Group A (n = 77): prolactinomas and current/past DAA use Group B (n = 70): non-functioning pituitary adenoma and no history of DAA use |
Prolactinoma | Cabergoline, bromocriptine | Cross-sectional Postal survey |
To determine the correlates of ICDs | Over-representation of males who developed an ICD in group A compared with group B |
| Callesen et al. [80] | 2014 | 490 | 490 PD patients | PD | Total LEDD: 555.4 (392.2) mg DAA LEDD: 114.8 (141.9) mg |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Younger age More symptoms of depression Higher level of neuroticism Lower levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness |
| Pontieri et al. [82] | 2015 | 155 | 155 PD patients: 21 PD + PG 36 PD + ICD-NOS 98 No-ICD |
PD PD + PG vs. PD + ICD-NOS vs. PD-ICD: Mean age at onset (years): 51 (±8) vs. 57 (±10) vs. 61 (±9) Mean duration (years): 8 (±5) vs. 7 (±4) vs. 5 (±3) |
PD + PG vs. PD + ICD-NOS vs. PD–ICD:
DAA-LEDD = 307 (±275) vs. 316 (±374) vs. 166 (±197) mg LEDD = 487 (±625) vs. 388 (±278) vs. 251 (±279) mg Total LEDD = 794 (±603) vs. 704 (±509) vs. 416 (±303) mg |
Study cohort | To determine the correlates of ICDs |
PD patients with PG and with ICD-NOS vs. No-ICD: Higher severity of psychotic symptoms Higher ‘sleep disturbances’ and ‘sexual preoccupation’ scores PD patients with PG vs. with ICD-NOS and No-ICD: Younger age Higher severity of depressive and anxious symptoms PD patients with ICD-NOS vs. No-ICD: Younger age |
| Olley et al. [120] | 2015 | 40 | 40 PD patients: 20 PG_PD 20 NG_PD |
PD PG_PD vs. NG_PD: Mean age at onset (years): 56.4 (±9) vs. 59.4 (±8) Mean duration (years): 8 (±5) vs. 7.9 (±4) |
Cabergoline, pramipexole, pergolide, bromocriptine, l-dopa | Cross-sectional Case-control |
To explore the temporal relationships between problem gambling and DRT | Factors influencing/contributing to changes in gambling: Periods of regular premorbid gambling Increased accessibility to gambling venues Ineffective coping skills Mental illness |
| Tessitore et al. [134] | 2015 | 54 | 30 PD patients: 15 PD with ICD 15 PD–ICD (matched for age, sex, and educational level) 24 age- and sex-matched HCs |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean duration (years): 5.3 (±3) vs. 6.6 (±4) |
PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD:
DAA-LEDD (mg) = 243 (±82) vs. 243 (±90) Total LEDD (mg) = 477 (±223) vs. 532 (±207) |
Cross-sectional Case-control Imaging study in ‘on’ phase |
To determine the correlates of ICDs |
PD patients with ICD vs. without ICD and HC: Thicker cortex in ACC and OFC Correlation between these structural abnormalities and ICDs severity (and not with cognitive deficits which characterized patients with ICD) |
| Zainal Abidin et al. [126] | 2015 | 91 | 91 PD patients: 52 with ICB 39 without ICB |
PD PD + ICB vs. PD–ICB: Mean duration (years): 8 (±1) vs. 6 (±1) |
l-Dopa, DDAs DAA-LEDD (mg) = 83 (±12) vs. 1 (±0.2) LEDD (mg) = 346 (±42) vs. 173 (±27) |
Genetic study | To investigate the association of selected polymorphism within the DRD and GRIN2B genes with the development of ICB | Variants of DRD1 rs4867798, DRD1 rs4532, DRD2/ANKK1 rs1800497, and GRIN2B rs7301328 |
| Payer et al. [133] | 2015 | 50 | 32 PD patients: 11 PD + ICD 21 PD–ICD 18 age-, sex-, and education-matched HCs |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean duration (years): 12 (±4) vs. 7 (±5) |
l-Dopa, DAAs (pramipexole, ropinirole, pergolide, amantadine, MAO inhibitors, COMT inhibitors | Cross-sectional Case-control PET study |
To investigate the association between ICD in PD and D3 receptor availability | D3 receptor levels were not elevated in PD with ICD |
| Sáez-Francàs et al. [94] | 2016 | 115 | 115 PD patients: 27 PD with ICD 88 PD without ICD |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Mean age at onset (years): 53.7 (±10) vs. 60.3 (±9) Mean duration (months): 74.8 (±49) vs. 46.3 (±42) |
DAA, l-dopa, MAO-B inhibitors, amantadine PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: DAA–EDD = 216 (±135) vs. 114 (±135) mg LEDD = 660 (±403) vs. 440 (±521) mg |
Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Higher trait anxiety score Higher impulsivity scores |
| Vela et al. [95] | 2016 | 87 EOPD patients 87 age- and gender-matched HCs |
PD Median disease duration: 5 years |
Rasagiline (n = 48), l-dopa (n = 55) DAAs (n = 70): rotigotine, pramipexole, ropinirole, cabergoline |
Cross-sectional Case-control |
To determine the correlates of ICDs | Higher depression score | |
| Premi et al. [130] | 2016 | 84 | 84 PD patients: 21 PD + ICD 63 PD–ICD |
PD Mean duration: 1.7 ± 2.4 years |
Ropinirole, pramipexole, rotigotine, amantadine | Cross-sectional Case-control SPECT imaging |
To determine the correlates of ICDs |
PD patients with ICD vs. No-ICD: Reduction of left putaminal and left inferior frontal gyrus tracer uptake No functional covariance with contralateral basal ganglia and ipsilateral cingulate cortex |
| Cilia et al. [125] | 2016 | 442 | 442 PD patients: 154 PD + ICD/DDS 288 PD–ICD/DDS |
PD PD + ICD/DDS vs. PD–ICD/DDS: Mean duration (years): 8.3 (±5.5) vs. 8.1 (±5.6) |
PD + ICD/DDS vs. PD–ICD/DDS:
DAA-LEDD = 233 (±80) vs. 226 (±88) vs. 166 (±197) mg LEDD = 475 (±291) vs. 456 (±282) mg Total LEDD = 707 (±301) vs. 689 (±302) mg |
Cross-sectional Case-control Genotyping AND longitudinal: 2- to 9-year prospective cohort for patients with ICD/DDS only (assessment at 1 year and at the last visit available) |
To determine the correlates of ICDs |
PD patients with ICD/DDS vs. No-ICD/DDS:
Association with TPH2 (recessive) and dopamine transporter gene variants (dominant) Association between TPH2 genotype and severity of ICD/DDS Follow-up: Association between TPH2 genotype, premorbid depression and higher frequency of depressive symptoms AND more severe behavioral abnormalities, multiple ICDs, and a lower rate of full-remission TPH2 was the strongest predictor of no remission, while the extent of DA agonist daily dose reduction had no effect |
| Brusa et al. [124] | 2016 | 58 | 58 PD patients: 37 with PG 21 without PG/ICD |
PD | Any dopaminergic medication | Cross-sectional Case-control |
To determine the correlates of PG |
PD patients with PG vs. without PG/ICD: Higher scores on the 3 MMPI-2 validity scales (lying, lying frequency, and defensive behavior) Higher scores on the 2 MMPI-2 content scales (bizarre ideation and cynicism) No significant difference for the clinical scales |
| Krishnamoorthy et al. [83] | 2016 | 425 | 170 PD patients: 70 with ICDs 100 No-ICD 285 HCs |
PD |
l-Dopa (81%) DAAs (pramipexole or ropinirole) (58%) |
Cross-sectional Case-control | To determine the correlates of ICDs | DRD3 p.Ser9Gly (rs6280) heterozygous variant CT |
| Gescheidt et al. [121] | 2016 | 87 | 49 EOPD 13 with ICD symptoms 36 without ICD symptoms 38 age-matched HCs |
PD Mean duration (years): 11 (3–27) |
l-Dopa, DAAs, amantadine, anticholinergics DAA-LEDD (mg) = 300 (105–480) LEDD (mg) = 798 (300–1750) Total LEDD (mg) = 894 (256–2050) |
Cross-sectional Case-control |
To determine the correlates of ICD symptoms |
PD with ICD symptoms vs. without ICD symptoms (univariate analysis):
Anxiety Somatization Personality style: self-assertive/antisocial and reserved/schizoid Lower conscientiousness in EOPD patients with PG |
| Smith et al. [129] | 2016 | 320 | Untreated PD patients with a DAT imaging deficit at baseline | PD Baseline characteristics: Mean disease duration (months): 6.6 |
Follow-up characteristics: l-dopa, DAAs, MAO-B inhibitors, amantadine |
Longitudinal (3-year prospective cohort study) DAT SPECT imaging (baseline and follow-up) |
To determine the correlates of ICD symptoms | Younger age Lower DAT binding (i.e., greater decrease in DAT availability), ongoing loss over time |
| Kraemmer et al. [127] | 2016 | 276 | PD untreated patients, free of ICD at baseline | PD Baseline characteristics: Mean disease duration (months): 6.3 (±6.3) |
86% of the patients started DRT during the follow-up 40% of the patients initiated a DAA |
Longitudinal (3-year prospective cohort study) Genetic study |
To estimate ICD heritability | Heritability = 57% The clinical–genetic prediction model reached highest accuracy OPRK1, HTR2A, and DDC genotypes were the strongest genetic predictive factors |
| Ramirez Gómez et al. [96] | 2017 | 255 | 255 PD patients: 70 with ICD 185 No-ICD |
PD PD + ICD vs. PD–ICD: Median duration (years): 4 vs. 10 |
DAAs (pramipexole, ropinirole, bromocriptine, piribedil, rotigotine) | Cross-sectional | To determine the correlates of ICDs | Younger age Stimulants use Rapid eye movement sleep disorder behavior |
ACC anterior cingulate, CSB compulsive sexual behavior, COMT catechol-O-methyltransferase, DA dopamine, DAA-LEDD dopamine agonist l-dopa equivalent daily dose, DAA dopamine agonist, DAT dopamine transporter, DAWS dopamine agonist withdrawal syndrome, DBS deep-brain stimulation, DDS dopamine dysregulation syndrome, DRT dopamine replacement therapy, EOPD early-onset Parkinson’s disease, HC healthy control, ICB impulsive and compulsive behavior, ICD impulse control disorder, ICD-NOS impulse control disorder not otherwise specified, ICRB impulsive control and repetitive behavior disorders, l -dopa levodopa, LEDD levodopa equivalent daily dose, MAO monoamine oxidase, MMPI-2 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2, NEO-FFI NEO Five-Factor Inventory, NG_PD Parkinson’s disease without problem gambling, No-ICD without impulse control disorder, OFC orbitofrontal cortex, PD Parkinson’s disease, PET positron emission tomography, PG_PD Parkinson’s disease with problem gambling, PIU problematic Internet use, PG pathological gambling, RB repetitive behavior disorder, RLS restless legs syndrome, SPECT single photon emission computed tomography, STN subthalamic nucleus, SUD substance use disorder, Total LEDD LEDD+DAA-LEDD, TPH2 tryptophan hydroxylase type 2, Y-BOCS Yale–Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale, + indicates with, − indicates without, ± indicates with or without