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. 2018 Jan 10;8:255. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-18305-x

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© The Author(s) 2017, corrected publication 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Bile acids modulate a broad spectrum of LPS-induced pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes. LPS activates the TLR4 receptor, which signals through MyD88 and TRAM, followed by the activation of different transcription factors, resulting in expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes. Bile acids affect the expression of these pro-inflammatory (down-regulation shown with a red arrow), anti-inflammatory and regulatory (up-regulated shown with a blue arrow) genes by activating the TGR5 bile acid receptor and cAMP-dependent PKA activation on human macrophages.