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. 2018 Jan 8;4:237. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2017.00237

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Copyright © 2018 Sharma, Rokana, Chandra, Singh, Gulhane, Gill, Ray, Puniya and Panwar.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Alternative strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance and their direct and indirect mechanisms of action. (A) Vaccination helps in preventing the course of infections by evolving immune cells (i.e. B cells , T cells ) to develop an adaptive immunity by producing specific antibodies () against important pathogens. (B) Chicken egg yolk antibodies provide effective treatment approach against several viral and bacterial diseases. (C) Probiotics (), prebiotics (), and synbiotics improve general health by selectively stimulating innate immune cells (). (D) Lytic bacteriophage or their purified gene products could be used to treat sepsis and few bacterial infections. (E) Quorum sensing quenchers () could control virulence of pathogens by inhibiting the binding of auto-inducers () to respective receptors. (F) Antimicrobial peptides (), bacteriocins (), and phytocompounds () directly inhibit the bacterial growth by acting on bacterial cell membrane. (G) Modified CRISPR-Cas approach targets resistance genes in pathogens and reverse the selective pressure of resistance. (H) Metal-based nanoparticles () help in blockage of enzyme pathways, alteration of cell wall, and nucleic material pathways.

Inline graphic — Alternative strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance and their direct and indirect mechanisms of action. (A) Vaccination helps in preventing the course of infections by evolving immune cells (i.e. B cells , T cells ) to develop an adaptive immunity by producing specific antibodies () against important pathogens. (B) Chicken egg yolk antibodies provide effective treatment approach against several viral and bacterial diseases. (C) Probiotics (), prebiotics (), and synbiotics improve general health by selectively stimulating innate immune cells (). (D) Lytic bacteriophage or their purified gene products could be used to treat sepsis and few bacterial infections. (E) Quorum sensing quenchers () could control virulence of pathogens by inhibiting the binding of auto-inducers () to respective receptors. (F) Antimicrobial peptides (), bacteriocins (), and phytocompounds () directly inhibit the bacterial growth by acting on bacterial cell membrane. (G) Modified CRISPR-Cas approach targets resistance genes in pathogens and reverse the selective pressure of resistance. (H) Metal-based nanoparticles () help in blockage of enzyme pathways, alteration of cell wall, and nucleic material pathways.