TABLE 2 .

Targets and modes of action of acrolein and their consequences

Effects	Mode of action	Molecular event(s)a	Reference
Direct
DNA mutation	DNA adducts	Conjugation of DNA bases	7
Protein dysfunction	Amino acid adducts	Conjugation of amino acids bearing an amine/thiol group	8
Indirect
Apoptosis	Mitochondrial dysfunction	Mitochondrial membrane potential ↓, caspase 7/9↑, caspase 3↓	9
Endoplasmic reticulum stress	Immune and inflammatory responses	NF-κB ↑, TNF-α ↑, IL-6 ↑, IL-8 ↑	9
Intestinal barrier dysfunction	Downregulation of tight junction proteins	ZO-1 ↓, occludin ↓, claudin-1 ↓	10

^aArrows represent upregulation (↑) and downregulation (↓).