Table 1.
Year | Crop | Waste stream | Target compounds | Geographical location | Green or sustainable separation approach | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2017 | Olives | Olive kernels | Phenolic compounds and oil | France and Spain | Aqueous liquid solid extraction (LSE), mechanical expression (ME), supercritical CO2 (SC-CO2) and gas-assisted mechanical expression (GAME) | Gas-assisted mechanical expression (GAME) for the selective recovery of lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds from olive kernel [145] |
2017 | Figs | Leaves | Bioactive compounds | China | Deep eutectic solvent with microwave and ultrasound extraction Time: 10 min (MW) and 60 min (US) Temperature: 40–80 °C Power: 250 W (MW) and 700 W (US) |
Enhanced and green extraction polyphenols and furanocoumarins from Fig (Ficus carica L.) leaves using deep eutectic solvents [136] |
2017 | Polygonum multiflorum | Herbal raw materials | Stilbene glycoside and anthraquinones | China | Ionic liquids with ultrasonic extractor Time: 1–120 min Power: 40–120 W |
Sequential extraction and separation using ionic liquids for stilbene glycoside and anthraquinones in Polygonum multiflorum [131] |
2017 | Several sources | Not defined | Mostly bioactive compounds | Spain | Review Critical overview about the greenness of water as extraction solvent |
Water as green extraction solvent: Principles and reasons for its use [146] |
2017 | Pomelo | Flavedo | Essential oil | China | Microwave irradiation Power: 240–700 W Time: 24 min |
A process to preserve valuable compounds and acquire essential oils from pomelo flavedo using a microwave irradiation treatment [52] |
2017 | Selaginella doederleinii | Not defined | Biflavonoids | China | Ionic liquids and microwave-assisted extraction Power: 300–700 W Time: 30–50 min Temperature: 40–60 °C |
Optimization of ionic liquid-assisted extraction of biflavonoids from Selaginella doederleinii and evaluation of its antioxidant and antitumor activity [132] |
2017 | Pogostemon cablin | Leaves | Essential oils | Indonesia | Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) and solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) Power: 600 W (MAHD) and 264 W (SFME) Time: 66 min (MAHD) and 45 min (SFME); solvent: water |
Comparison of conventional and microwave-assisted distillation of essential oil from Pogostemon cablin leaves: analysis and modeling of heat and mass transfer [147] |
2017 | Juglans regia L. | Fresh male flowers and unripe walnut seeds | Phenolic content and water-soluble polyphenols | Italy | Microwave-assisted extraction Frequency: 2.45 GHz Max. power: 500 W Solvent: ethanol/water Temperature: 60–100 °C Time: 6–30 min |
Process intensification by experimental design application to microwave-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from Juglans regia L. [148] |
2017 | Walnuts | Walnut de-pellicle | Flavonoids | China | Macroporous resins Pretreated with 5% HCl and 5% NaOH solutions |
Recovery of flavonoids from walnuts de-pellicle wastewater with macroporous resins and evaluation of antioxidant activities in vitro [149] |
2017 | Ginseng | Roots | Bioactive compounds | Brazil | Sequential extraction system using ethanol followed by water Temperature: 333 K Time: 5–240 min |
Techno-economic evaluation of obtaining Brazilian ginseng extracts in potential production scenarios [150] |
2017 | Food ingredients and natural products | Not defined | Nutraceutics, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and bioenergy applications | France | Review current knowledge on ultrasound-assisted extraction |
Ultrasound-assisted extraction of food and natural products. Mechanisms, techniques, combinations, protocols and applications. A review [151] |
2017 | Coffee | Coffee chaff | Antioxidants | Portugal | Solid–liquid extraction and multi-frequency multimode modulated (MMM) Frequency: 19.8 kHz Power: 250 and 500 W Time: 60–600 s |
Multi-frequency multimode modulated technology as a clean, fast, and sustainable process to recover antioxidants from a coffee by-product [152] |
2017 | Apples | Wild apple fruit dust | Bioactive compounds, polyphenolic antioxidants | Serbia | Microwave-assisted extraction Time: 15–35 min Ethanol conc.: 40–80% Irradiation power: 400–800 W |
Microwave-assisted extraction of wild apple fruit dust production of polyphenol-rich extracts from filter tea factory by-products [153] |
2017 | Wood | Wood biomass | Lignin oligomers | China | Microwave-assisted treatment with deep eutectic solvent Solvent: choline chloride and oxalic acid dehydrate Temperature: 80 °C Power: 800 W Time: 3 min |
Efficient cleavage of lignin-carbohydrate complexes and ultrafast extraction of lignin oligomers from wood biomass by microwave-assisted treatment with deep eutectic solvent [137] |
2017 | Wood | Oak wood from cooperage by-products | Furanic compounds, cis- and trans- B-methyl-y-octalactones, terpenes and norisoprenoids, benzenic compounds | Spain | Pressurized liquid extraction Solvent: water, ethanol/water (80:20) and ethyl lactate Temperature: 60–120 °C Pressure: 10.34 MPa Flush volume: 60% Purging time: 80 s |
Extraction of natural flavorings with antioxidant capacity from cooperage by-products by green extraction procedure with subcritical fluids [154] |
2017 | P. armeniaca, P. persica, P. domestica, Triticum aesativum | Fruit and vegetables seeds and peels | Phenolic compounds | Pakistan | Ultrasonic water bath Solvent: 65% (v/v) ethanol (methanol and acetone) Extraction time: 30 min Temperature: 50 °C |
Extraction and quantification of phenolic compounds from Prunus armeniaca seed and their role in biotransformation of xenobiotic compounds [71] |
2017 | Lignocellulose materials | Lignocellulosic biomass such as crops or forestry residues | High value-added bio-based products (e.g., bioethanol, biogas, acetic acid, acetic acid, or activated carbon) | Mexico and Pakistan | Review Focus on transformation based on syngas platform (thermochemical platform) and sugar platform (biochemical platform) |
Lignocellulose: a sustainable material to produce value-added products with zero-waste approach [155] |
2017 | Olives | Olive by-product (paté) | Fatty acids and phenolic compounds | Spain and Italy | Soxhlet extraction (percolation with petroleum ether, under reflux) | Macro and micro functional components of a spreadable olive by-product (pate) generated by new concept of two-phase decanter [156] |
2017 | Tucumã palm fruit | Tucumã’s endocarp | Cellulose | Brazil and USA | Alkaline extraction (135 °C, autoclave, 2 bar, 2 min, 20% of aqueous NaOH, 1:30 straw to liquor (g/ml), 30 min) | New approach for extraction of cellulose from tucuma’s endocarp and its structural characterization [115] |
2017 | Grapes | Seeds | Resveratrol | China | Subcritical water extraction Pressure: 0.5–1.5 MPa Time: 20–30 min Temperature: 130–170 °C |
Optimization of subcritical water extraction of resveratrol from grape seeds by response surface methodology [100] |
2017 | Mango, rambutan, santol | Peels | Antioxidant activity | Thailand | Solid–liquid extraction Ethanol (95%) |
Study effect of natural extracts on the antioxidant activity in pork balls [157] |
2017 | Tomatoes | Pericarps without seeds | Nutrient-rich antioxidant ingredients | Portugal, Spain, Ireland | Microwave extraction (600 rpm, 200 W) Time: 0–20 min Temperature: 60–180 °C Ethanol conc.: 0–100% Solid/liquid ratio: 5–45 g/l |
Valorization of tomato wastes for development of nutrient-rich antioxidant ingredients: a sustainable approach towards the needs of today’s society [158] |
2017 | Citrus latifolia, Rubus sp., Origanum vulgare and Heterotheca inuloides | Peel and broken down vegetable material | Fatty acids and antioxidants compounds | Mexico, Belgium | SC-CO2 Extraction time: 1 h Flow: 25 g/min Pressure: 10–40 MPa Temperature: 35–60 °C Co-sol.: 0–8 g/min Percent flow: 0–32% |
Thermodynamics and statistical correlation between supercritical CO2 fluid extraction and bioactivity profile of locally available Mexican plant extracts [159] |
2017 | Pomegranates | Peels | Carotenoids | Greece | Ultrasound-assisted extraction (139 W, 20 kHz); solvents: vegetable oils Extraction time: 10–60 min Temperature: 20–60 °C |
Green ultrasound-assisted extraction of carotenoids from pomegranate wastes using vegetable oils [72] |
2017 | Pomegranates | Both edible and non-edible parts | Polyphenols | Greece | Semi-automatic extractor Solvents: H2O, β-CD, HP-β-CD Extraction time: 363 min Temperature: 25 °C |
Green extraction of polyphenols from whole pomegranate fruit using cyclodextrins [121] |
2016 | Quince | Leaves | Natural dyes and bioactive compounds | Romania | Aqueous extraction Extraction time: 60–240 min Temperature: 4–100 °C |
Dyeing and antibacterial properties of aqueous extracts from quince (Cydonia oblonga) leaves [160] |
2016 | Corn | Steep liquor | Vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid and quercetin | Spain, Portugal, and Italy | Liquid–liquid extraction Solvents: chloroform (56 °C, 60 min) Ethyl acetate (25 °C, 45 min) |
A multifunctional extract from corn steep liquor: antioxidant and surfactant activities [161] |
2016 | Palm | Oil palm empty fruit bunches | Cellulose with polypropylene as biocomposite material | Malaysia, Pakistan | Ultrasonic treatment (40 kHz) solvent: hydrogen peroxide Extraction time: 1–3 h Room temperature |
Autoclave and ultra-sonication treatments of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers for cellulose extraction and its polypropylene composite properties [73] |
2016 | Tomatoes | Seeds and peels | Carotenoids/proteins | Tunisia and Germany | Supercritical CO2 extraction 80 °C, 400 bar, 4 g CO2/min for 2 h |
Biorefinery cascade processing for creating added value on tomato industrial by-products from Tunisia [82] |
2016 | Black tea | Black tea processing waste | Antioxidant and antimicrobial phenolic compounds | Turkey and USA | Solvent extraction Solvents: H2O, ethanol Extraction time: 2 h Temperature: 70 °C |
Black tea processing waste as a source of antioxidant and antimicrobial phenolic compounds [46] |
2016 | Rapeseed | Rapeseed oil cakes | Protein- and lignin-rich fractions | France | Ultrafine miffing and electrostatic separation Solvents: NaOH, diethylether, hexane Extraction time: 5 h Temperature: 60 °C |
Chemical- and solvent-free mechanophysical fractionation of biomass induced by tribo-electrostatic charging: separation of proteins and lignin [139] |
2016 | Sunflower | Seeds | Sunflower protein-based ingredients | USA | Review Green pigmentation associated with the interaction of sunflower protein and oxidized chlorogenic acid (CGA) by outlining the sunflower oil and protein meal market, CGA reactions contributing to greening, methods for CGA extraction, and the effect of processing on sunflower protein quality and the greening reaction |
Chlorogenic acid oxidation and its reaction with sunflower proteins to form green-colored complexes [162] |
2016 | Passion fruit | Peels | Pectin | Malaysia | Acidic and enzymatic extraction Citric solution, celluclast Extraction time: 30–120 min Temperature: 35–85 °C |
Comparison of acidic and enzymatic pectin extraction from passion fruit peels and its gel properties [107] |
2016 | Red grape | Pomace | Polyphenols and anthocyanin pigments | Greece | Ultrasound-assisted extraction (140 W, 37 kHz) Solvent: aqueous glycerol Extraction time: 60 min Temperature: 45 °C |
Development of a green process for the preparation of antioxidant and pigment-enriched extracts from winery solid wastes using response surface methodology and kinetics [74] |
2016 | Orange and lemon | Fresh and waste peel | Pectin and d-limonene | Portugal and Italy | Microwave Solvent: water Extraction time: 1 h Temperature: 80 °C |
Eco-friendly extraction of pectin and essential oils from orange and lemon peels [53] |
2016 | Coffee | Spent coffee grounds | Oil | China | Ultrasonication extraction Solvent: hexane Extraction time: 15–75 min |
Effect of oil extraction on properties of spent coffee grounds-plastic composites [98] |
2016 | Tomato | Waste of tomato paste plants | Lycopene | Iran and Canada | Microemulsion technique (MET) Solvents: water, saponin: glycerol, surfactant: lycopene Extraction time: 30 min Temperature: 25 °C |
Enhanced lycopene extraction from tomato industrial waste using microemulsion technique: optimization of enzymatic and ultrasound pre-treatments [163] |
2016 | Red capsicum (Capsicum annuum) | Processing residue | Carotenoids | India | Enzymatic liquefaction Pectinase, viscozyme L, cellulose extraction Time: 1 h Temperature: 60 °C |
Enzyme-assisted extraction of carotenoid-rich extract from red capsicum (Capsicum annuum) [108] |
2016 | Rice | Husk | Cellulose | India | Eco-friendly method montmorillonite, LiOH, H2O2 Extraction time: 6 h Temperature: 80 °C |
Extraction of cellulose from agricultural waste using montmorillonite K-10/LiOH and its conversion to renewable energy: biofuel by using Myrothecium gramineum [122] |
2016 | Tea (yarrow and rose hip) | By-products from filter-tea factory | Chlorophylls and carotenoids | Serbia | Supercritical fluid extraction Extraction time: 5 h Temperature: 40 and 60 °C Pressure: 100–300 bar CO2 flow rate: 0.194 hk/h |
Extraction of minor compounds (chlorophylls and carotenoids) from yarrow-rose hip mixtures by traditional versus green technique [83] |
2016 | Corn, sugarcane, sorghum, pearl millet, green gram, groundnut sesame | Bagasse, stover, stalk and shell | Para-coumaric acid (pCA) | India and USA | Alkaline hydrolysis pH 3, alkali conc.: 0.5–4 M Hydrolysis duration: 4–24 h Sugaring-out for separation of pCA from hydrolysate |
Extraction of p-coumaric acid from agricultural residues and separation using ‘sugaring out’ [116] |
2016 | Winery | Grape wastes and by-products | Antioxidant compounds and polyphenols | Denmark, China, France and Brazil | Review Conventional (solid liquid extraction, heating, grinding, etc.) and non-conventional (pulsed electric fields, high voltage electrical discharges, pulsed ohmic heating, ultrasounds, microwave-assisted extractions, sub- and supercritical fluid extractions, as well as pressurized liquid extraction) methods |
Green alternative methods for the extraction of antioxidant bioactive compounds from winery wastes and by-products: a review [164] |
2016 | 1st to 3rd generation biodiesel feedstocks | Mostly microalgae | Biodiesel | Malaysia and Japan | Review Integration of enzymatic reactors with supercritical fluid technology |
Green biodiesel production: a review on feedstock, catalyst, monolithic reactor, and supercritical fluid technology [84] |
2016 | Jatropha curcas, oil palm | Seeds, empty fruit bunch | Bio-oil | Malaysia | Microwave extraction Solvent: water Extraction time: 60–140 min Power: 200–700 W |
Green bio-oil extraction for oil crops [54] |
2016 | Green tea | Green tea residue | Protein | The Netherlands | Alkaline protein extraction Solvent: NaOH Extraction time: 2 h Temperature: 95 °C |
Improving yield and composition of protein concentrates from green tea residue in an agri-food supply chain: effect of pre-treatment [117] |
2016 | Eucalyptus wood | Eucalyptus chips | Hemicelluloses | Uruguay | Green liquor extraction Solvents: water and green liquor (Na2CO3, Na2S, and NaOH) extraction time: 30–150 min temperature: 100–160 °C |
Integrated forest biorefineries: green liquor extraction in eucalyptus wood prior to kraft pulping [123] |
2016 | Watermelons | Juice | Lycopene | Brazil | Microfiltration, diafiltration, reverse osmosis α-Al2O3 membranes T1-70 (35 °C) Polyamide composite membranes (35 °C, 60 bar) |
Integrated membrane separation processes aiming to concentrate and purify lycopene from watermelon juice [140] |
2016 | Larch wood | Sapwood, heartwood, bark and branches | Phenolic compounds | Slovenia | Pressurized hot water Extraction time: 30 min Temperature: 100 °C |
Isolation of phenolic compounds from larch wood waste using pressurized hot water: extraction, analysis and economic evaluation [165] |
2016 | Tomatoes | Pomace | Lycopene | Iran | Microemulsion technique H2O and surfactants Extraction time: 30 min Temperature: 35 °C |
Microemulsion-based lycopene extraction: effect of surfactants, co-surfactants, and pretreatments [166] |
2016 | Melons | Rind | Carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, and fatty acids | Spain | Solvent extraction Solvent: cyclohexane, ethanol Extraction time: 2 h Microwave radiation: 190 °C, 20 min, 200 W |
Microwave heating for the catalytic conversion of melon rind waste into biofuel precursors [167] |
2016 | Tomatoes, fungus Blakeslea trispora |
Processing waste | Lycopene | Greece | Review Emphasis on final product safety and ecofriendly processing (solvent extraction, SFE, MAE, high-pressure processing, ultrasound, electrical methods) |
Natural origin lycopene and its “green” downstream processing [168] |
2016 | Oranges | Peel | Pectin | Italy | Conventional hydrodistillation, MAE, US Solvents: water Extraction time: 5–155 min Temperature: 90–333 °C |
Novel configurations for a citrus waste based biorefinery: from solventless to simultaneous ultrasound and microwave-assisted extraction [55] |
2016 | Lemons, olives, onion, red grape, coffee, and wheat | Peel, leaves, solid wastes, pomace, spent filter and bran | Polyphenolic compounds | Greece | Ultrasound extraction (140 W, 37 kHz) eutectic mixtures Extraction time: 90 min Temperature: 80 °C |
Novel glycerol-based natural eutectic mixtures and their efficiency in the ultrasound-assisted extraction of antioxidant polyphenols from agri-food waste biomass [75] |
2016 | Potatoes | Peels | Polyphenolic antioxidants | Greece | Ultrasound extraction (140 W, 37 kHz) Solvents: ethanol and glycerol Extraction time: 90 min Extraction temperature: 50–80 °C |
Optimization of a green ultrasound-assisted extraction process for potato peel (Solanum tuberosum) polyphenols using bio-solvents and response surface methodology [76] |
2016 | Grapes | Seeds | Grape seed oil | Croatia | Supercritical CO2 Extraction time: 90 min Temperature: 35–64 °C Pressure: 158–441 bar CO2 flow rate: 1.94 kg/h |
Optimization of supercritical CO2 extraction of grape seed oil using response surface methodology [85] |
2016 | Crocus sativus | Petals (underutilized bulk agro-waste) | Phenolic compounds | Iran | Subcritical water extraction Extraction time: 20–60 min Temperature: 120–160 °C |
Optimization of the subcritical water extraction of phenolic antioxidants from Crocus sativus petals of saffron industry residues: Box–Behnken design and principal component analysis [101] |
2016 | Bananas | Peels | Antioxidants | Malaysia and Turkey | Solvent extraction Solvents: acetone, ethanol, hexane, methanol, H2O Extraction time: 1–5 h |
Optimization of extraction parameters on the antioxidant properties of banana waste [47] |
2016 | Pea vine | Pea vine waste | Potential platform molecules (5-hydroxy furfural; ethanoic acid); sugars (levoglucosenone, rhamnose, xylose, fructose); biopolymer with pectinaceous and starch-like characteristics | United Kingdom | Pseudo-subcritical water extraction Temperature: 125–175 °C Pressure: 20–60 bar Flow rate: 1–5 ml/min |
Potential utilization of unavoidable food supply chain wastes-valorization of pea vine wastes [6] |
2016 | Keratin-containing products stored in large waste deposits | Processing waste | Keratin | Romania | Review Keratins solubilization (protected and unprotected methods) followed by dehydro-thermal, physical-type bonding or chemical treatments |
Practical ways of extracting keratin from keratinous wastes and by-products: a review [169] |
2016 | Taxus baccata L. | Case study based on European yew | 10-deacetylbaccatin III (10-DAB) | Germany | Review Theoretical approach in thermodynamics and process modelling as an alternative process design |
Process design for integration of extraction, purification and formulation with alternative solvent concepts [170] |
2016 | Olives | Olive mill waste water | Biophenols (hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol) | Italy | Liquid–liquid extraction Solvents: n-hexane, EtOAc |
Quick assessment of the economic value of olive mill waste water [171] |
2016 | Olives | Olive mill waste water | Tyrosol | Spain, United Kingdom and Spain | Hydrophobic ionic liquids Solvents: ILs Extraction time: 2 h Temperature: 303–323 K |
Recovery of tyrosol from aqueous streams using hydrophobic ionic liquids: a first step towards developing sustainable processes for olive mill wastewater (OMW) management [133] |
2016 | Cupuassu | Seeds | Cupuassu butter (phenolic content/tocopherols/fatty acids) | Brazil | Supercritical CO2 extraction Temperature: 50 and 70 °C Pressures: 20–40 MPa |
Supercritical CO2 extraction of cupuassu butter from defatted seed residue: experimental data, mathematical modeling and cost of manufacturing [86] |
2016 | Coffee | Spent coffee grounds | Oil fraction | Portugal, Brazil, Portugal | Supercritical CO2 Extraction time: 1 h Temperature: 55 °C Pressure: 250 bar Flow rate: 15 kg/h |
The green generation of sunscreens: using coffee industrial sub-products [87] |
2016 | Ginger | Not defined | Essential oil, phenolics, fibers and phenolic acids | France | Microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity processing (MHG) and UAE Solvents: water Extraction time: 83 and 90 min Temperature: up to 100 and 50 °C |
Towards a “dry” bio-refinery without solvents or added water using microwaves and ultrasound for total valorization of fruit and vegetable by-products [56] |
2016 | Passion fruit | Passion fruit seeds and passion fruit seed cake (the residue from the seed oil production by cold pressing) | Oil and extract with promising antioxidant and antimicrobial activities | Brazil and USA | SFE, LPE, MAC, UE Solvents: sCO2, hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanol, H2O Extraction time: 45 min–7 days temperature: room temp.− 50 °C |
Valorization of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis sp.) by-products: sustainable recovery and biological activities [88] |
2016 | Wood | Broken pallets, crates, and waste timber from building and demolition works | Renewable energy source | Romania | Review Overview of the technical and economic opportunity of using wood waste as a renewable energy source |
Wood waste as a renewable source of energy [172] |
2015 | Plants of spontaneous flora, cultivated plant, and wastes resulted in agricultural and food industry | General bio-derived materials | Polyphenols | Romania | Review Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) |
A comparative analysis of the ‘green’ techniques applied for polyphenols extraction from bioresources [173] |
2015 | Onion | Onion solid wastes | Polyphenol- and pigment-enriched extracts with antioxidant activity | Greece | Ultrasound extraction (140 W, 37 kHz) Extraction time: 60 min Temperature: 45 °C |
A green ultrasound-assisted extraction process for the recovery of antioxidant polyphenols and pigments from onion solid wastes using Box–Behnken experimental design and kinetics [174] |
2015 | Six types of plant fibers (bast, leaf, seed, straw, grass, and wood) and animal fibers and regenerated cellulose fibers | Seed (coir) and animals (chicken feather) as they are secondary or made from waste products | Fibers | Sweden | Review Dew, stand, cold and warm water, steam, enzyme, mechanical, ultrasound chemical and Surfactant retting |
A review of natural fibers used in biocomposites: plant, animal and regenerated cellulose fibers [175] |
2015 | Non edible vegetables | Seeds | Biodiesel | Egypt | Review | A review on green trend for oil extraction using subcritical water technology and biodiesel production [102] |
2015 | Neem | Neem seed cake (NSC) | Neem Protein (NP) | USA | Alkaline extraction Solvents: H2O and NaOH Extraction time: 60 min Temperature: 75 °C |
Bio-based polymeric resin from agricultural waste, neem (Azadirachta indica) seed cake, for green composites [118] |
2015 | Oranges | Peel | Essential oil, polyphenols and pectin | Algeria and France | MHG, UAE, MAE Solvents: “in situ” water Extraction time: 25 and 3 min Temperature: 59 °C |
Bio-refinery of orange peels waste: a new concept based on integrated green and solvent free extraction processes using ultrasound and microwave techniques to obtain essential oil, polyphenols and pectin [57] |
2015 | Corn, sugarcane, sorghum, soybean, rice, barley, potato, other lignocellulose, vegetable oils, oilseed | By-products (bagasse, straw, cobs, stalks, stover, grass etc.) | Biofuel, 1,3-propanediol, succinic acid, adhesives, solvents, surfactants, ethyl lactate, erucic acid, amylose ethers, among others | Denmark | Review Focus on integrating sustainability assessment procedures and tools (LCA and evaluation approaches) |
Biorefining in the prevailing energy and materials crisis: a review of sustainable pathways for biorefinery value chains and sustainability assessment methodologies [144] |
2015 | Agro-industrial products | Agro-industrial co-products | Phenolic compounds | Brazil | Solid-state fermentation, even as friendly enzyme-assisted extractions | Biotransformation and bioconversion of phenolic compounds obtainment: an overview [176] |
2015 | Cashew-nut | Husk | Natural dyes | India | Enzyme-assisted extraction cellulase and pectinase Solvent: water Extraction time: 60–180 min pH 9.5 |
Cashew-nut husk natural dye extraction using Taguchi optimization: green chemistry approach [109] |
2015 | Beet | Sugar beet pulp | Monosaccharides present in hydrolyzed SBP pectin: l-rhamnose, l-arabinose, d-galactose and d-galacturonic acid | United Kingdom | Centrifugal partition chromatography ascending mode, 1000 rpm Mobile phase flow rate: 8 ml/min |
Centrifugal partition chromatography in a biorefinery context: separation of monosaccharides from hydrolyzed sugar beet pulp [141] |
2015 | Mangoes (Mangifera indica L.) and rye grains (Secale cereals L.) | Peels and grains | Alk(en)ylresorcinols (ARs) | Germany | Ultrasound-assisted extraction Solvent: dichloromethane Extraction time: 15 s cooled in ice bath |
Development and validation of an HPLC method for the determination of alk(en)ylresorcinols using rapid ultrasound-assisted extraction of mango peels and rye grains [78] |
2015 | Olives | Waste from olive oil production | High-added value compounds (polyphenols, fatty acids, coloring pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids), tocopherols, phytosterols, squalene, volatile and aromatic compounds) | Spain, France, Morocco and Portugal | Review Conventional (solvent, heat, grinding) and non-conventional methodologies (ultrasounds, microwaves, sub- and supercritical fluid extractions, pressurized liquid extraction, pulsed electric fields and high voltage electrical discharges) |
Emerging opportunities for the effective valorization of wastes and by-products generated during olive oil production process: non-conventional methods for the recovery of high-added value compounds [142] |
2015 | Asparagus | Dried segments (residues) | Antioxidant compounds | China | Solid–liquid extraction Solvents: acetone, methanol or ethanol Extraction time: 2 h Temperature: 70 °C |
Extraction and analysis of antioxidant compounds from the residues of Asparagus officinalis L. [177] |
2015 | Grapes | Skin | Anthocyanins | Korea | Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) Extraction time: 45 min room temperature |
Highly efficient extraction of anthocyanins from grape skin using deep eutectic solvents as green and tunable media [138] |
2015 | Green tea | Green tea leaf residue | HG pectin, RGII pectin, organic acids, cellulose and hemi-cellulose | The Netherlands | Alkaline extraction Solvents: 0.1 M NaOH Extraction time: 2 h (protein), 5 min–24 h (carbohydrates or lignin) Temperature: 95 °C |
How does alkali aid protein extraction in green tea leaf residue: a basis for integrated biorefinery of leaves [119] |
2015 | Papaya (Carica papaya L.) | Processing waste | Lycopene | China | Ultrasound extraction (600 W, 40 kHz) Solvents: ethanol/ethyl acetate Extraction time: 15–40 min Temperature: 20–70 °C |
Optimization of ultrasound-assisted extraction of lycopene from papaya processing waste by response surface methodology [77] |
2015 | Carrots, green beans, leeks and celeriac | Vegetable waste streams (rejected carrots, carrot steam peels, green beans cutting waste, leek cutting waste and celeriac steam peels) | Pectin | Belgium | Alcohol insoluble residue Solvents: ethanol and acetone |
Pectin characterization in vegetable waste streams: a starting point for waste valorization in the food industry [178] |
2015 | Berries of A. melanocarpa | Black chokeberry wastes | Antioxidants | France | Extraction-adsorption process Extraction time: 2–8 h Temperature: 22 °C |
Pilot scale demonstration of integrated extraction-adsorption eco-process for selective recovery of antioxidants from berries wastes [179] |
2015 | Cashew nuts (CNS) | Shells | Anacardic acid | Tanzania | Review Focus on natural anacardic acids from CNS and other plants and their semi-synthetic derivatives as possible lead compounds in medicine |
Potential biological applications of bio-based anacardic acids and their derivatives [180] |
2015 | Soy, sugarcane, tea | Soy sauce residues, sugarcane bagasse and tea dregs | Hemicelluloses | China | Ionic liquid Solvents: ionic liquids Extraction time: 1–5 h Temperature: 70–100 °C |
Quantitative industrial analysis of lignocellulosic composition in typical agro-residues and extraction of inner hemicelluloses with ionic liquid [134] |
2015 | Tomatoes | Processing tomato | Nutritional bioactive compounds, lycopene | Italy | Biocompatible technology extraction | Recovery of tomato bioactive compounds through a biocompatible and eco-sustainable new technology for the production of enriched “nutraceutical tomato products” [181] |
2015 | Citrus sinensis (Hamlin, Valencia, Pera riu and Pera Natal) | Albedo and flavedo | Flavanone | Brazil | Enzymatic process tannase, pectinase and cellulase Extraction time: 30 h Temperature: 40 °C pH 5 |
Simultaneous extraction and biotransformation process to obtain high bioactivity phenolic compounds from Brazilian citrus residues [110] |
2015 | Sunflower | Seeds | Oil- (fatty acids and their antioxidant capacities) and water-soluble phase (proteins, carbohydrates and phenolics) | Slovenia | Subcritical water extraction Extraction time: 5–120 min Temperature: 60–160 °C Pressure: 30 bar |
Simultaneous extraction of oil- and water-soluble phase from sunflower seeds with subcritical water [103] |
2015 | Cereals, root crops, fruits, vegetables, oilseeds, meat, dairy products |
Food waste | Nutritionally interesting compounds, chemicals and biofuels | Brazil | Review Sub- and supercritical technologies |
Sub- and supercritical fluid technology applied to food waste processing [89] |
2015 | Agricultural biomass | By-products such as durian peel, mango peel, corn straw, rice bran, corn shell and potato peel | Bio-fuel, water soluble sugars and phenolic compounds | Malaysia and Nigeria | Review Sub-critical water |
Sub-critical water as a green solvent for production of valuable materials from agricultural waste biomass: a review of recent work [182] |
2015 | Sugarcane | Sugarcane waste (rind, leaf and bagasse) | Wax/long-chain aldehydes and n-policosanols (nutraceutical compounds) triterpenoids | UK and Brazil | Supercritical CO2 (scCO2) Extraction time: 4 h Temperature: 50 °C Pressure: 350 bar Flow rate: 40 g/min |
Sugarcane waste as a valuable source of lipophilic molecules [183] |
2015 | Mangoes | Peel | Pectin | Germany and Saudi Arabia | Hot-acid extraction Extraction time: 90 min pH 1.5 |
The arabinogalactan of dried mango exudate and its co-extraction during pectin recovery from mango peel [184] |
2015 | Coffee | Spent coffee grounds | Tannin compounds | Malaysia | Alkaline extraction Solvent: NaOH Extraction time: 30–90 min Temperature: 60–100 °C |
The influence of extraction parameters on spent coffee grounds as a renewable tannin resource [185] |
2014 | Eucalyptus globulus wood | Trimmings of Eucalyptus globulus wood veneers | Phenolic compounds | Spain | Aqueous two-phase extraction PEG 2000 and ammonium sulphate Extraction time: 30–390 min Temperature: 25–65 °C |
Aqueous two-phase systems for the extraction of phenolic compounds from eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) wood industrial wastes [124] |
2014 | Pomegranates | By-products after winemaking of pomegranate | (poly)phenolic compounds | Spain, Mexico and Italy | Extraction with MeOH 70% (v/v) and sonication | Assessment of pomegranate wine lees as a valuable source for the recovery of (poly)phenolic compounds [186] |
2014 | Citrus | Peel, pulp and seeds | Several value-added products, such as essential oils, pectin, enzymes, single cell protein, natural antioxidants, ethanol, organic acids, and prebiotics | Greece and Sweden | Review | Biotransformation of citrus by-products into value added products [187] |
2014 | Olives | Olive solid waste | Natural dye | Tunisia | Aqueous extraction in closed flasks Solvent: NaOH Extraction time: 15–120 min Temperature: 30–90 °C |
Development and optimisation of a non-conventional extraction process of natural dye from olive solid waste using response surface methodology (RSM) [125] |
2014 | Coffee | Waste coffee grounds | Biodiesel production | United Kingdom | Suspended in fresh heptane room temperature | Effect of the type of bean, processing, and geographical location on the biodiesel produced from waste coffee grounds [188] |
2014 | Grapevine and hazelnut | Grapevine waste and hazelnut skins | Polyphenols content | Italy and France | UAE and MAE Solvents: ethanol, methanol, acetone, butanone, β-cyclodextrin Extraction time: 5–40 min Temperature: 20–60 °C |
Efficient green extraction of polyphenols from post-harvested agro-industry vegetal sources in Piedmont [58] |
2014 | Bamboo | Raw bamboo culm | Lignin | Malaysia | Review Chemical and steam explosion methods |
Extraction and preparation of bamboo fibre-reinforced composites [189] |
2014 | Spruce | Spruce sawdust | Carboxylic acids | Finland | Alkaline extraction Solvents: Na2CO3 or Na2S.9H2O Extraction time: 30 min + 30 min; Temperature: 80 °C up to 160 °C and 210 °C |
Production of carboxylic acids from alkaline pretreatment byproduct of softwood [120] |
2014 | Variety of biomass sources (rapeseed, soybean, palm oil and nonedible feedstocks) | Preferably 2nd–4th generation feedstock (non-edible materials as bagasse, oil waste, microalgae, cyanobacteria and microbes) | Biodiesel | Malaysia | Review Supercritical fluid process and catalytic in situ or reactive extraction process |
Integration of reactive extraction with supercritical fluids for process intensification of biodiesel production: prospects and recent advances [90] |
2014 | Cherries | Cherry seeds | Total phenolic content | Brazil and France | Pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) Solvent: anhydrous ethanol Extraction time: 2–10 min Temperature: 40–80 °C |
Isolation by pressurized fluid extraction (PFE) and identification using CPC and HPLC/ESI/MS of phenolic compounds from Brazilian cherry seeds (Eugenia uniflora L.) [190] |
2014 | Corn | Corn stover | Lignin | USA | Protic ionic liquid (PIL) Extraction time: 24 h Temperature: 90 °C |
Lignin extraction from biomass with protic ionic liquids [135] |
2014 | Oranges | Peel | d-limonene | United Kingdom | Microwave-assisted extraction 200 W, closed vessel Solvent: hexane Temperature: 70–110 °C |
Microwave-assisted extraction as an important technology for valorising orange waste [59] |
2014 | Sweet Limes | Peel | Antioxidant phenolics | Pakistan | Enzymatic treatment Incubation time: 30–120 min Temperature: 30–75 °C pH 5 to 8 |
Optimization of enzyme-assisted revalorization of sweet lime (Citrus limetta Risso) peel into phenolic antioxidants [111] |
2014 | Artichoke | Artichoke scraps | Phenolic compounds | Italy | Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) Time: 60 min Solvent: water |
Phenols and antioxidant activity in vitro and in vivo of aqueous extracts obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction from artichoke by-products [79] |
2014 | Cachrys pungens Jan (Umbelliferae) | Aerial parts of Cachrys pungens Jan (Umbelliferae) | Bioactive compounds | Italy | Solvent extraction Solvents: methanol Extraction time: 72 h room temperature dark conditions |
Phytotoxic activity of Cachrys pungens Jan, a Mediterranean species: separation, identification and quantification of potential allelochemicals [191] |
2014 | Wheat | Wheat straw | Major organic components (e.g., N-heterocycles, fatty acids, phenols and lignins) | Canada | Fast pyrolysis steel shots 475 °C | Wheat straw biomass: a resource for high-value chemicals [192] |
2013 | Cranberries | Cranberry juice and pomace | Polyphenolics | Canada and Mexico | Pilot scale methods Solvents: ethanol Extraction time: 24 h |
Bioactivities of pilot-scale extracted cranberry juice and pomace [48] |
2013 | Fruits, vegetables, eggs, shrimp | Plant residues, industrial and post-harvest materials | Carotenoids | Mexico | Review Novel environmentally friendly solvents (e.g., ethyl lactate, bioethanol, vegetal oil, commercial enzymes) |
Carotenoids extraction and quantification: a review [193] |
2013 | Tomatoes | Peels | Lycopene | Italy | Enzymatic-assisted extraction Temperature: 45 and 60 °C pH 4–5 and 9–10.5 |
Environmentally friendly lycopene purification from tomato peel waste: enzymatic-assisted aqueous extraction [112] |
2013 | Coffee | Coffee residue left after the preparation of the brew (spent coffee grounds—SCG) | Polysaccharides | Portugal | Alkali extraction Solvent: H2O and 4 M NaOH Extraction time: 3 h Temperature: 20–120 °C |
Extractability and structure of spent coffee ground polysaccharides by roasting pre-treatments [194] |
2013 | Coffee | Spent coffee grounds | Lipids, oil | Iran | Soxhlet, UAE, MAE, SFE Solvents: petroleum benzene and n-hexane Soxhlet: 6 h, boiling temperature UAE: 45 min, ambient conditions MAE: 30 s, 200 and 800 W SFE: 200–250 bar, 40–60 °C, modifier (water, ethanol, hexane) |
Extraction of lipids from spent coffee grounds using organic solvents and supercritical carbon dioxide [60] |
2013 | Forest Industry | Forest residues, including bark | Bioactive molecules | Canada | Review Green alternatives for the design, formulation, and manufacture of new products with applications in various markets (cosmetics, natural health products, biocides, adhesives, coatings) |
Forest extractives, the 4th pathway of the forest biorefinery concept [195] |
2013 | Coffee | Spent coffee grounds (SCG) | Lipid fraction | Portugal and Brazil | Supercritical carbon dioxide Extraction time: 1 h Temperature: 55 °C Pressure: 250 bar CO2 flow rate: 15 kg/h |
From coffee industry waste materials to skin-friendly products with improved skin fat levels [91] |
2013 | Walnuts | Green husk | Natural compounds with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties | Spain and Portugal | Solvent extraction Solvents: water, methanol, ethanol Extraction time: 45 min room temperature |
Influence of solvent on the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of walnut (Juglans regia L.) green husk extracts [49] |
2013 | Coffee | Spent coffee | Antioxidants | Spain | Soxhlet, SPE, filter coffeemaker Solvents: water, ethanol, methanol Extraction time: 6–165 min Temperature: 80–100 °C |
Influence of extraction process on antioxidant capacity of spent coffee [50] |
2013 | Tomatoes | Peel | Fatty acids | France | Depolymerization 1.5 M KOMe overnight treatment at room temperature | Interfacial properties of functionalized assemblies of hydroxy-fatty acid salts isolated from fruit tomato peels [196] |
2013 | Coffee | Spent coffee grounds (SCG) | Polysaccharides | Portugal | Microwave superheated water extraction Extraction time: 5 min Temperature: 200 °C |
Microwave superheated water extraction of polysaccharides from spent coffee grounds [61] |
2013 | Turkish red pine timber | Waste barks | Natural dye | Turkey | Natural dyestuff extraction machine Solvents: water and ethanol Extraction time: 24 h (osmosis) |
Natural dye extraction from waste barks of Turkish red pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) Timber and eco-friendly natural dyeing of various textile fibers [126] |
2013 | Cotton, jute, flax, hemp, ramie and natural colorants | Wastes and manufacturing by-products | Fibres, polysaccharides, dyes and pigments, polyphenols, oils and other biologically active compounds | India | Review Conventional maceration, soxhlet, MAE, SFE, ultrasonic extraction |
Perspectives for natural product based agents derived from industrial plants in textile applications: a review [197] |
2013 | Coffee | Spent coffee grounds | Natural antioxidants | Italy | Solvent extraction Solvents: H2O, ethanol, Extraction time: 30 min Temperature: 60 °C |
Recovery of natural antioxidants from spent coffee grounds [198] |
2013 | Feijoa fruits | Primarily skin and some flesh | Total soluble solids (TSS), pectin fibre content, total extractable PP content (TEPC) and total antioxidant activity | New Zealand | Accelerated solvent extraction Solvents: (acidified) water, ethanol Temperature: 20 or 50 °C |
Utilisation potential of feijoa fruit wastes as ingredients for functional foods [127] |
2012 | Green tea | Green tea waste | Noncaffeine tea polyphenols | China | Water bath 20 min 90 °C |
A novel way of separation and preparation non-caffeine tea polyphenols from green tea waste [199] |
2012 | Larch | Larch wood-derived lignocellulosic residue | Arabinogalactan, pectin, and crystalline glucose | Russia | Water extraction Extraction time: 2–3 h Temperature: 60–80 °C |
An eco-friendly technology for polysaccharide production from logging and sawing waste [128] |
2012 | Olives | Olive leaves | Oleuropein | Greece | SFE and PLE SFE: 30 MPa, 50 °C, 9.6 kg/h PLE: 10.34 MPa, 10 min, 40–150 °C Solvents: H2O and EtOH |
Development of a green extraction procedure with super/subcritical fluids to produce extracts enriched in oleuropein from olive leaves [92] |
2012 | Wood | Wood barks, obtained from pulp mills as industrial wastes | Natural phenolic polymers of tannins and lignin | France | Aqueous extraction urea and sulfite used as water-additives Extraction time: 1 h under reflux Temperature: 75 °C |
Development of green adhesives for fibreboard manufacturing, using tannins and lignin from pulp mill residues [129] |
2012 | Wheat | Wheat milling by-products | High quality oil and vitamin E | Italy | Review Solvent extraction, mechanical pressing or the eco-friendly supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) extraction technology |
Durum wheat by-products as natural sources of valuable nutrients [200] |
2012 | Tree bark | Waste product from paper pulp industries | Antioxidants | Sweden | SFE, PFE, SLE Solvents: scCO2, ethanol, H2O Extraction time: 30 min–24 h Temperature: 70–180 °C |
Extraction of antioxidants from spruce (Picea abies) bark using eco-friendly solvents [93] |
2012 | Timber | Empty fruit bunches | Fiber | Malaysia | Perspective paper | Fiber resin matrix composites: nature’s gift [201] |
2012 | Oranges | Peel | Essential oil | United Kingdom | Steam distillation and microwave irradiation SD: water, 1 h MW: 12.5 min, 200 °C, power gradient from 400 to 1200 W |
p-cymenesulphonic acid: an organic acid synthesized from citrus waste [202] |
2012 | Black tea | Black tea wastes | Pancreatic lipase-inhibiting polyphenols | Japan | Hot-compressed water (HCW) ion-exchange water extraction temperature: 100–200 °C | Polyphenols extracted from black tea (Camellia sinensis) residue by hot-compressed water and their inhibitory effect on pancreatic lipase in vitro [203] |
2012 | Green tea | Green tea waste | Polyphenols | China | Liquid–liquid extraction Solvents: H2O, glyceryl, triacetate, n-butanol, ethyl acetate Extraction time: 12 h + 2 h |
Recovery of tea polyphenols from green tea waste by liquid–liquid extraction [204] |
2012 | Citrus | Peels | Polymethoxy flavonoids | China | Solvent extraction Solvents: methanol and ethanol Extraction time: 1–3 h Temperature: 65–85 °C |
Study on the extraction technique of poly-methoxyflavonoids from citrus peels by using response surface methodology [205] |
2011 | Coffee | Husks | Caffeine | Spain | Supercritical CO2 Extraction time: 20 min Temperature: 323 K Pressure: 60 bar CO2 flow rate: 2–3 g/min |
Extraction of caffeine from Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora var. Robusta) husks using supercritical carbon dioxide [94] |
2011 | Oranges | Peel | Essential oils | France and Tunisia | Microwave steam diffusion (MSDf) Extraction time: 12 min Temperature:100 °C |
Microwave steam diffusion for extraction of essential oil from orange peel: kinetic data, extract’s global yield and mechanism [62] |
2011 | Grape | Skins | Anthocyanins | Spain | Microwave-assisted extraction Solvents: H2O, methanol Extraction time: 5–20 min Temperature: 50–100 °C |
Microwave-assisted extraction of anthocyanins from grape skins [63] |
2011 | Tea (green, oolong and black) | Tea residues (green, oolong and black tea residues) | Phenolic compounds | Japan | Microwave-assisted extraction water under autohydrolytic conditions Extraction time: 2 min Temperature: 110–230 °C |
Microwave-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from tea residues under autohydrolytic conditions [64] |
2011 | Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides | By-Products of juice production | Flavonoids | France | Solvent-free microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG) without addition of solvent or water atmospheric pressure | Solvent free microwave-assisted extraction of antioxidants from sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) food by-products [206] |
2011 | Wheat | Wheat straw | Energy and CO2 secondary metabolites including fatty acids, wax esters and fatty alcohols | England | Supercritical CO2 extraction Temperature: 40–100 °C Pressure: 100–300 bar CO2 flow rate: 40 g/min |
Use of green chemical technologies in an integrated biorefinery [95] |
2011 | Olives | By-products generated during storage of extra virgin olive oil | Phenolic compounds, hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, decarboxymethyl oleuropein aglycone, and luteolin | Italy and Spain | Solid–liquid and liquid–liquid extraction Solvents: n-hexane, methanol, H2O Extraction time: 1 h |
Wastes generated during the storage of extra virgin olive oil as a natural source of phenolic compounds [207] |
2010 | Tomatoes | Ground tomatoes without seeds | Lycopene | France and Algeria | Solvent extraction Solvent: d-limonene |
Carotenoid extraction from tomato using a green solvent resulting from orange processing waste [208] |
2010 | Tea plant | Tea stalk and fiber wastes | Caffeine | Turkey | Supercritical CO2 ethanol as co-solvent Extraction time: 1–5 h Temperature: 50–70 °C Pressure: 250 bar semi-continuous flow |
Effect of ethanol content on supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of caffeine from tea stalk and fiber wastes [96] |
2010 | Portuguese elderberry | Pomace | Anthocyanins | Portugal | Supercritical CO2 extraction Solvents: CO2, water, ethanol Extraction time: 40 min Temperature: 313 K |
Effect of solvent (CO2/ethanol/H2O) on the fractionated enhanced solvent extraction of anthocyanins from elderberry pomace [97] |
2010 | Green tea | Green tea waste | Polyphenols, total catechins, and reducing sugars | South Korea and USA | Solvents: cold water (25 °C), hot water (90 °C), sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid and methanol Extraction time: 20 min 250 rpm |
Effects of cellulase from Aspergillus niger and solvent pretreatments on the extractability of organic green tea waste [130] |
2010 | Tea | Tea waste | Caffeine | Iran | Subcritical water extraction Temperature: 100–200 °C Pressure: 20–40 bar water flow rate: 1–4 g/min |
Isolation of caffeine from tea waste using subcritical water extraction [104] |
2010 | Citrus sudachi | Peels | Flavones | Japan | Microwave-assisted extraction Solvents: methanol extraction time: 10 to 12 min |
Microwave-assisted extraction and methylation of useful flavones from waste peels of Citrus sudachi [209] |
2010 | Mate (Ilex paraguariensis) | Mate residue | Compounds with antioxidant properties, such as phenolic acids and methylxanthines, such as caffeine | Brazil | Solvent extraction Solvent: methanol, H2O, ethanol sonication for 15 min room temperature |
Phenolic acids and methylxanthines composition and antioxidant properties of mate (Ilex paraguariensis) residue [210] |
2010 | Rice | Rice bran | Phenolic compounds as well as other valuable materials | Japan | Subcritical water Preheated oil: 100–180 °C, 10 min Preheated water bath: 180–360 °C, 10 min and 220 °C for 2–30 min |
Production of phenolic compounds from rice bran biomass under subcritical water conditions [105] |
2009 | Citrus | Peels | Essential oil | France and Algeria | Microwave hydrodiffusion gravity Extraction time: 15 min atmospheric pressure 500 W |
A new process for extraction of essential oil from citrus peels: microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity [65] |
2009 | Kiwifruit | By-products derived from kiwifruit processing | Phenolics and pectin polysaccharides | New Zealand | Solvent extraction Solvents: water, ethanol Extraction time: 1 h room temperature |
Evaluation of the extraction efficiency for polyphenol extracts from by-products of green kiwifruit juicing [211] |
2009 | Palm | Black liquor of oil palm waste | Lignin | Malaysia | Solvent extraction Chemical extractions: di-ethyl ether, alcohol-benzene mixture treatment with H2SO4 for 30–45 min |
Exploring the antioxidant potential of lignin isolated from black liquor of oil palm waste [212] |
2009 | Turkish tea plants | Tea stalk and fiber wastes | Caffeine | Turkey | Supercritical carbon dioxide Extraction time: 1–10 h Temperature: 55–75 °C increasing pressure up to 250 bar semi-continuous flow |
Extraction of caffeine from tea stalk and fiber wastes using supercritical carbon dioxide [99] |
2009 | Rice | Rice bran | Oil (value-added materials such as amino acids, organic acids, and water-soluble saccharides) | Japan | Subcritical water preheated oil bath: 100–180 °C Preheated salt bath: 200–360 °C Reaction time: 5 min |
Sub-critical water treatment of rice bran to produce valuable materials [106] |
2009 | Several biomass | Residues rich in lignocellulosics | Bio-based chemicals (e.g., succinic, lactic, fumaric l-malic, l-aspartic acids) | England | Review Focus on green chemical conversion of lignin into higher value chemicals |
The integration of green chemistry into future biorefineries [21] |
2009 | Apple | Industrially generated apple pomace | Antioxidants and polyphenols | Ireland | Pressurized liquid extraction accelerated solvent extractor static extraction of 5 min Temperature: 75–193 °C |
The optimization of extraction of antioxidants from apple pomace by pressurized liquids [213] |
2008 | Chicory, citrus, cauliflower, endive, and sugar beet | Plant by-products (chicory roots, citrus peel, cauliflower florets and leaves, endive, and sugar beet pulps) | Pectins | France and Finland | Enzymatic extraction Extraction time: 4 h Temperature: 50 °C |
Extraction of green labeled pectins and pectic oligosaccharides from plant by-products [113] |
2008 | Tea (green, oolong, and black) | Green, oolong, and black tea residues | Polysaccharides, polyphenols, arabinose, galactose, xylose, catechins | Japan | Microwave heating Solvent: water Temperature: 110–230 °C |
Microwave heating of tea residue yields polysaccharides, polyphenols, and plant biopolyester [66] |
2008 | Plant lipids | Plant oils and other natural lipidic phases | Phytosterols, vitamins | Czech Republic | Review Enzymes as efficient natural catalysts |
Plant products for pharmacology: application of enzymes in their transformations [114] |
2007 | Broccoli | Broccoli seeds | Natural sulforaphane | China and Australia | Liquid–liquid and solid-phase extraction Solvents: ethanol, hexane, ethyl acetate |
Separation and purification of sulforaphane from broccoli seeds by solid phase extraction and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography [214] |
2006 | Tea | Tea waste | Caffeine | Turkey | Solid–liquid extraction solvents: hot water and chloroform Temperature: 370 K and 293 K |
Solid–liquid extraction of caffeine from tea waste using battery type extractor: process optimization [215] |