Table 3.
The heterogeneity of an environment of studied taxa
| Ancient asexual taxon | Sexual control | Abiotically more homogenous than control | Biotically more homogenous than control |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bdelloidea | Monogononta | YesTend to be associated with marginal habitats and predominate there over sexual control (Pejler, 1995; Ricci, 1987; Ricci & Balsamo, 2000; Welch, Ricci, & Meselson, 2009), predominate over sexual control in polar habitats (Dartnall, 1983; Janiec, 1996; Jungblut, Vincent, & Lovejoy, 2012; Pejler, 1995; Sohlenius & Bostrom, 2005) + anhydrobiosis (Pilato, 1979; Ricci, 2001); predominate over sexual control in soil (Devetter & Scholl, 2014; Donner, 1975; Pejler, 1995; Scholl & Devetter, 2013); predominate over sexual control in hot springs at temperatures above 40°C (Issel, 1900, 1901; McDermott & Skorupa, 2011; Pax & Wulfert, 1941) | YesTend to be associated with marginal habitats and predominate there over sexual control (Pejler, 1995; Ricci, 1987; Ricci & Balsamo, 2000; Welch et al., 2009); aquatic representatives are exclusively benthic and sedentary in contrast to sexual control (Koste & Shiel, 1986; Ricci & Balsamo, 2000); predominate over sexual control in soil (Devetter & Scholl, 2014; Donner, 1975; Pejler, 1995; Scholl & Devetter, 2013); predominate over sexual control in polar habitats (Dartnall, 1983; Janiec, 1996; Jungblut et al., 2012; Pejler, 1995; Sohlenius & Bostrom, 2005); predominate over sexual control in hot springs at temperatures above 40°C (Issel, 1900, 1901; McDermott & Skorupa, 2011; Pax & Wulfert, 1941); absent in ancient lakes in contrast to sexual control (Martens & Schön, 2000; Schön & Martens, 2004); no typical predators and parasites (filtration, grazing etc.) in comparison with the sexual control (Ricci & Balsamo, 2000); getting rid of parasites (Wilson, 2011; Wilson & Sherman, 2010) and escaping from competitors, predators and parasites (Ladle, Johnstone, & Judson, 1993) via Bdelloidea‐specific anhydrobiosis; high tolerance to irradiation (Gladyshev & Meselson, 2008) and starving (Ricci & Perletti, 2006) because of Bdelloidea‐specific anhydrobiosis |
| Darwinuloidea | Cypridoidea | No DifferenceTend to be associated with marginal habitats, springs and interstitial (Pieri, Martens, Stoch, & Rossetti, 2009; Pinto, Rocha, & Martens, 2005; Schön, et al. 1998; Schön, et al. 2009) + torpor (Carbonel, et al. 1988; Delorme & Donald, 1969; Retrum, Hasiotis, & Kaesler, 2011), but the same applies to some degree also to the sexual control; Darwinuloidea does not dominate in hot springs over its sexual control (Brues, 1932; Jana & Sarkar, 1971; Klie, 1939; Külköylüoğlu, Meisch, & Rust, 2003; Moniez, 1893; Wickstrom & Castenholz, 1985) | YesTend to be associated with marginal habitats, springs and interstitial, but the same applies to some degree also to the sexual control (Pieri et al., 2009; Pinto et al., 2005; Schön et al., 1998, 2009); no typical predators and parasites (filtration) in comparison with the sexual control (Dole‐Olivier, et al. 2000); able to escape from competitors, predators and parasites because of torpor, but the same applies also to the sexual control (Carbonel et al., 1988; Delorme & Donald, 1969; Retrum et al., 2011); little parasitized, but the same applies to some degree also to the sexual control (Bruvo et al., 2011; Schön et al., 2009); aquatic representatives are exclusively benthic and sedentary in contrast to sexual control (Dole‐Olivier et al., 2000; Pokorný, 1965; Rossetti, Pinto, & Martens, 2011; Schön et al., 2009); riverine and lacustrine representatives predominantly inhabit hypoxic depths with few competitors, predators and parasites (Rossi, Todeschi, Gandolfi, Invidia, & Menozzi, 2002; Schön et al., 2009; Smith, Kamiya, & Horne, 2006); little predated (Ranta, 1979); highly tolerant to starving (Rossi et al., 2002); absent in ancient lakes with numerous competitors, predators and parasites in contrast to sexual control (Martens, 1998; Schön & Martens, 2004); does not dominate in extremely cold (Bunbury & Gajewski, 2009; Külköylüoğlu & Vinyard, 2000; McLay, 1978; Tudorancea, Green, & Huebner, 1979) or hot (Brues, 1932; Jana & Sarkar, 1971; Klie, 1939; Külköylüoğlu et al., 2003; Moniez, 1893; Wickstrom & Castenholz, 1985) environments in comparison with sexual control |
| Ancient asexual Oribatidae | Compared sexual Oribatidae | YesTend to be associated with soil in contrast to sexual controls and their predominance rises with the depth of soil horizon (Devetter & Scholl, 2014; Karasawa & Hijii, 2008; Krivolutsky & Druk, 1986; Maraun et al., 2009; Norton & Palmer, 1991); only few arboreal representatives in comparison with sexual controls (Karasawa & Hijii, 2008; Maraun et al., 2009); predominantly inhabit abiotically more stable forest soils in comparison with meadows (Krivolutsky & Druk, 1986; Siepel, 1994), but see also Devetter and Scholl (2014) | YesTend to be associated with soil in contrast to sexual controls and their predominance rises with the depth of soil horizon (Karasawa & Hijii, 2008; Maraun et al., 2009; Norton & Palmer, 1991); only few arboreal representatives (Karasawa & Hijii, 2008; Maraun et al., 2009); dominantly not typical predators and parasites (decomposition, fungivory, lichens, microorganisms), but the same applies also to the sexual controls (Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009); predominantly inhabit stable environments with unstructured resources (Domes, et al. 2007; Maraun, et al. 2012); but do not prevail in the environment with less parasites and predators (Cianciolo & Norton, 2006) |
| Ancient asexual Endeostigmata | Compared sexual Endeostigmata | YesTend to be associated with soil, and, in contrast to sexual controls, especially its deep horizons (Darby, Neher, Housman, & Belnap, 2011; Neher, Lewins, Weicht, & Darby, 2009; Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al. 1993; Oconnor, 2009; Walter, 2001, 2009); all hypothetical sister sexual lineages of Alicorhagia + Stigmalychus are much more ecologically disparate, including life in abiotically changeable environments (Darby et al., 2011; Neher et al., 2009; Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Oconnor, 2009; Walter, 2001, 2009); ecological patterns analogical to Oribatidae but poorly explored (Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Walter, 2009) | YesTend to be associated with soil, and, in contrast to sexual controls, especially its deep horizons (Darby et al., 2011; Neher et al., 2009; Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Oconnor, 2009; Walter, 2001, 2009); dominantly not typical predators and parasites (decomposition, fungivory, microorganisms), but the same applies also to the sexual controls internal to the clade Endeostigmata (Walter, 2009); all hypothetical sister sexual lineages of Alicorhagia + Stigmalychus are much more ecologically disparate, including strategies with high degree of interspecific interactions (predators, parasites etc.) (Darby et al., 2011; Neher et al., 2009; Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Oconnor, 2009; Walter, 2001, 2009); ecological patterns analogical to Oribatidae but poorly explored (Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Walter, 2009) |
| Ancient asexual Trombidiformes | Compared sexual Trombidiformes | YesTend to be associated with soil, and, in contrast to sexual controls, especially its deep horizons (Bochkov & Walter, 2007; Darby et al., 2011; Kethley, 1989; Neher et al., 2009; Walter et al. 2009); all hypothetical sister sexual lineages are much more ecologically disparate, including life in abiotically changeable environments (Darby et al., 2011; Neher et al., 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Walter et al., 2009); ecological patterns analogical to Oribatidae but poorly explored (Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Walter et al., 2009) | YesTend to be associated with soil, and, in contrast to sexual controls, especially its deep horizons (Bochkov & Walter, 2007; Darby et al., 2011; Kethley, 1989; Neher et al., 2009; Walter et al., 2009); no typical predators and parasites (decomposition, fungivory, microorganisms) in comparison with sexual controls (Darby et al., 2011; Neher et al., 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Walter et al., 2009); all hypothetical sister sexual lineages are much more ecologically disparate, including strategies with high degree of interspecific interactions (predators, parasites etc.) (Darby et al., 2011; Neher et al., 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Walter et al., 2009); ecological patterns analogical to Oribatidae but poorly explored (Norton & Behan‐Pelletier, 2009; Norton et al., 1993; Walter et al., 2009) |
| Vittaria appalachiana | Related sexual species | YesDistributed in higher latitude in comparison with sexual controls (Farrar, 1978, 1998), but associated exclusively with geologically and ecologically highly stable habitats (caves, excesses etc.) in contrast to sexual controls (Farrar, 1978, 1990, 1998); sexual controls are associated with exposed habitats (epiphytic on trees or decomposing wood) (Farrar, 1978, 1990; Farrar & Mickel, 1991) | YesAssociated with habitats characterized by minimal competition due to low light levels in contrast to sexual controls (Farrar, 1978, 1998); distributed in higher latitude in comparison with sexual controls (Farrar, 1978, 1998); highly vulnerable to parasitization and competition (Caponetti, Whitten, & Beck, 1982) |
| Ancient asexual Timema | Sister sexual species | No DifferenceNo difference in their phenotype in comparison with sexual controls (Sandoval, Carmean, & Crespi, 1998); areas of 2/3 AA species extend to higher latitudes than their sexual controls (Law & Crespi, 2002a,b), but other species of the genus (including short‐term asexual and sexual species) have even northern distribution (Law & Crespi, 2002b) | No Difference2/3 AA species have narrower food niche in comparison with sexual controls (Law & Crespi, 2002b); 2/3 AA species has separate areas from remaining species (Law & Crespi, 2002b; Sandoval et al., 1998) in contrast with sexual and short‐term asexual representatives of the genus (Law & Crespi, 2002b), but see Law and Crespi (2002a); areas of 2/3 AA species extend to higher latitudes than their sexual controls (Law & Crespi, 2002a,b), but other species of the genus (including short‐term asexual and sexual species) have even more northern distribution (Law & Crespi, 2002b) |
| Ancient asexual Lasaea | Sexual Lasaea | No DifferenceAncient asexual representatives have global distribution including high latitudes, whereas the distribution of sexual species is limited to the shores of Australia and Tasmania (Ó Foighil & Smith, 1995; Ó Foighil & Thiriot‐Quievreux, 1999; Taylor & Ó Foighil, 2000); associated with tidal zone, but the same applies both to AA and sexual Lasaea lineages (Morton et al. 1957); the ability to slow down metabolism and survive up to 12 days outside water, but the same applies both to AA and sexual Lasaea lineages (Morton et al., 1957) | No DifferenceAncient asexual representatives have global distribution including high latitudes, whereas the distribution of sexual species is limited to the shores of Australia and Tasmania (Ó Foighil & Smith, 1995; Ó Foighil & Thiriot‐Quievreux, 1999; Taylor & Ó Foighil, 2000); all AA representatives (but also one of two sexual species in the genus, Lasaea colmani) are exclusively benthic and directly developing without the presence of ancestral planktonic larva (Ó Foighil, 1989; Ó Foighil & Eernisse, 1988; Rosewater, 1975); associated with diverse community of invertebrates, cyanophyta and algae including algal species directly eroding Lasaea's shell, but the same applies both to AA and sexual Lasaea lineages (Morton et al., 1957); not typical predator or parasite (filtration), but the same applies both to AA and sexual Lasaea lineages (Morton et al., 1957) |
Comparison of the biotic and abiotic heterogeneity of an environment inhabited by the studied ancient asexuals and their sexual controls. Detailed evaluation of the habitat heterogeneity is given in each pair to support our decision of which member of the pair inhabits a biotically or abiotically more heterogeneous environment.