Table 2.
Risk factors for stillbirths among cases and controls – bivariate analyses
| Risk factors | Cases n (%) n = 400 |
Controls n (%) n = 800 |
p-value* |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sociodemographic factors | |||
| Age of the mother >30 years | 23 (5.8) | 15 (1.9) | <0.001* |
| Occupation of mother (working outside home) | 117 (29.3) | 283 (35.4) | 0.03* |
| Education of father (illiterate) | 152 (38.0) | 310 (38.8) | 0.8 |
| Occupation of father (non-manual labourer) | 163 (40.8) | 365 (45.6) | 0.11 |
| Sex of the child (male)a | 218/393 (55.4) | 485/800 (61.1) | |
| Antenatal factors | |||
| Birth order | |||
| Primigravidae | 174 (43.5) | 275 (34.4) | <0.001* |
| Multigravidae | 226 (56.5) | 525 (65.6) | |
| Gestation period (n = 1178) | |||
| < 28 weeks | 0 | 3 (0.4) | <0.001* |
| < 37 weeks | 298 (75.3) | 286 (36.7) | |
| Mean interval between present and the last pregnancies among multigravida (months) | 20.1 (10.3) | 20.2 (9.4) | 0.9 |
| Any previous stillbirths among multigravida mothers | 33 (14.6) | 59 (11.3) | 0.2 |
| Registered with health facility during pregnancy | 372 (93.0) | 754 (94.3) | 0.39 |
| Proportion of women registered in 1st trimester | 187 (46.8) | 479 (59.9) | <0.001* |
| Received 3 or more ANC checkups | 141 (35.3) | 428 (53.5) | <0.001* |
| Intake of iron tablets during pregnancy | 263 (65.8) | 567 (70.9) | 0.07 |
| Multiple pregnancy (current pregnancy) | 4 (1.0) | 6 (0.8) | 0.65 |
| Tetanus toxoid during pregnancy | 385 (96.3) | 772 (96.5) | 0.83 |
| Ultrasound during pregnancy | 104 (26) | 205 (25.6) | 0.9 |
| Exposure to active or passive smoking | 156 (39) | 170 (21.3) | <0.001* |
| History of chewing tobacco during pregnancy | 89 (22.3) | 59 (7.4) | <0.001* |
| History of injury or accident during pregnancy | 41 (10.3) | 11 (1.4) | <0.001* |
| History of any physical violence during pregnancy | 50 (12.5) | 56 (7.0) | 0.002* |
| Gestational diabetes | 12 (3.0) | 30 (3.8) | 0.5 |
| Intake of indigenous medicines during pregnancy | 25 (6.3) | 33 (4.1) | 0.44 |
| Factors during last trimester of pregnancy | |||
| Bleeding per vagina during pregnancy | 146 (36.5) | 106 (13.3) | <0.001* |
| Excessive or foul smelling vaginal discharge during pregnancy | 75 (18.8) | 62 (7.8) | <0.001* |
| Burning micturition | 199 (49.8) | 312 (39.0) | <0.001* |
| Oedema (hand or face or legs) | 225 (56.3) | 317 (39.6) | <0.001* |
| Severe or persistent abdominal pain during pregnancy (not labour pain) | 131 (32.8) | 211 (26.4) | 0.02* |
| Blurring of vision or severe headache during pregnancy | 132 (33.0) | 123 (15.4) | <0.001* |
| Severe anemia requiring blood transfusion | 19 (4.8) | 26 (3.3) | 0.2 |
| High blood pressure during pregnancy | 46 (11.5) | 21 (2.6) | <0.001* |
| Factors related to labour and childbirth | |||
| Any complication during labour | 140 (35.0) | 152 (19.0) | <0.001* |
| Administration of 2 or more doses of medicines to augment labour | 145 (36.3) | 208 (26.1) | <0.001* |
| Duration of labour (12 h or more) | 37 (9.3) | 71 (8.9) | 0.53 |
| Mode of transport to reach facilities | n = 395 | n = 616 | <0.001* |
| Ambulance | 93 (23.5) | 148 (23.9) | |
| Private vehicle | 200 (50.6) | 374 (60.4) | |
| Any public transport | 102 (25.8) | 94 (15.0) | |
| Time taken to reach facility | n = 393 | n = 616 | |
| Up to 30 min | 253 (64.4) | 439 (71.3) | 0.02* |
| > 30 min | 140 (35.6) | 177 (28.7) | |
| Time to attend after reaching the facility | n = 392 | n = 615 | |
| Up to 10 min. | 171 (43.5) | 390 (63.4) | <0.001* |
| > 10 min. | 222 (56.5) | 225 (36.6) | |
| Mode of deliveryb | |||
| Vaginal (spontaneously or with little maneuver) | 375 (93.7) | 783 (98.1) | |
| Instrumental delivery | 24 (6.0) | 10 (1.3) | |
| Caesarean section | 1 (0.3) | 5 (0.6) | |
| Presence of any visible structural birth defectb | |||
| Yes | 3 (0.8%) | 3 (0.4%) | |
| No | 350 (87.5%) | 782 (97.8%) | |
| Do not know | 47 (11.8%) | 15 (1.9%) | |
*Values of p < 0.05 considered as statistically significant difference or association, based on chi-square estimates for proportions
aSex of stillborn children was not reliable hence was not considered for analyses
bBecause the cell size was less than 5, these were not included in the analyses