Table 2.
Studies on CKD among the general population
| Study ID | Year, country, region | Location | N | Population characteristics | Definition of CKD | Method of outcome assessment | Type of creatinine assay | Proteinuria | CKD prevalence | Quality assessment |
| Abdelsatir169 | 2013, Sudan, Northeast | All village inhabitants | 389 | Age (years): 41±15 Male gender: 16.2 % Hypertension: 39.6 %; DM: 17 % BMI category (kg/m 2) < 18 : 6.2 % 18 – 24.9 : 65.8 % 25 – 29.9 : 20.2 % = 30 : 7.8 % |
Not identified, personal history | Personal history | Not mentioned | Not measured | Total prevalence (as reported): 6.40% | Low |
| Fatiu73 | 2011, Nigeria, West | Market population | 286 | Age (years): 49.5±5.7 Male gender: 9.8% Hypertension: 37.7% BMI (kg/m2): 26.76±5.28 <20: 7.4% 20–25: 33.4% >25: 59% |
Proteinuria =+1 | Midstream urine sample was tested by urinary strip | Not measured | 29.70% | Total prevalence (based on proteinuria prevalence): 29.7% | Medium |
| Traore74 | 1998, Mali, West | All household population of the villages | 1098 | Age (years): 30±12 Male gender: 52% |
Proteinuria =+1 | Microhaematuria and proteinuria by urinary strip | Not measured | 40.80% | Total prevalence (based on proteinuria prevalence): 40.80% | Medium |
| Matsha12 | 2013, South Africa, South | Bellville town inhabitants | 1202 | Age (years): 52.9±14.8 Male gender: 24.7% SBP: 125±20 DBP: 76±13 DM: 26.4% BMI: 29.9±7.2 |
eGFR <60 mL/min | Four variables: MDRD, CG, CKD-EPI | Standardised creatinine assay | Not measured | Prevalence of stages 3–5: 7.4% (based on CKD-EPI with ethnicity correction) | Medium |
| Seck97 | 2014, Senegal, West | Two-stage cluster sampling of urban and rural inhabitants of Saint-Louis | 1037 | Age (years): 48.0±16.9 Male gender: 40% Hypertension: 39.1% DM: 12.7% BMI: 26.3±6.8 kg/m2 |
KDOQI | Albuminuria by urinary strips; positive samples were confirmed by 24-hour albuminuria, eGFR by 186 MDRD | 5.3% albuminuria >1 g/L | Total prevalence: 6.1% | High | |
| Pruijm116 | 2008, Seychelles, East |
A random sex-stratified and age-stratified sample inhabitants of Seychelles | 1255 | Age (years): range, 25–64 Male gender: 46% |
KDOQI | Quantitative microalbuminuria by ACR, eGFR using MDRD | Not mentioned | 11.4% microalbuminuria, 0.7% macroalbuminuria | Total prevalence: 15.3% Prevalence of stages 3–4 CKD: 3.2% |
High |
| Sumaili98 | 2009, Congo, Central | Multistage sampling of residents of Kinshasa | 500 | Age (years): 38.6±14.4 Male gender: 41% Hypertension: 27.6% DM: 11.7% BMI category (kg/m2) 25–29.9: 20.3% =30: 14.9% |
KDOQI | Proteinuria by urinary strip and 24-hour proteinuria, eGFR by CG and 175 MDRD | Kinetic Jaffe and IDMS-calibrated | 18% proteinuria by dipstick 5% (=300 mg/day) |
Total prevalence MDRD: 12.4% CG: 19% Prevalence by stage (MDRD) Stage 1: 2% Stage 2: 2.4% Stage 3: 7.8% Stage 4: 0% Stage 5: 0.2% |
High |
| Matsha159 | 2014, South Africa, South | All residents of Cape Town | 320 | Age (years): mean, 56.4 (95% CI 55.1 to 57.6) Male gender: 22% SBP: 124.7 (95% CI 122.8 to 126.7) mm Hg DBP: 75.5 (95% CI 74.2 to 76.7) mm Hg BMI: 31.9 (95% CI 31.2 to 32.7) kg/m2 Mean eGFR at baseline: 68.6±16.7 mL/min/1.73 m2 |
eGFR<60 mL/min/ 1.73 m2 | eGFR: 186 MDRD (four variables) | Not mentioned | Not measured | Total prevalence: 28.9% Prevalence by categories eGFR >90 mL/min/1.73 m2: 9.4% eGFR60 90 mL/min/1.73 m2: 58.7% eGFR30 60 mL/min/1.73 m2: 28.1% eGFR <30 mL/min/1.73 m2: 0.9% |
Medium |
| Sumaili75 | 2008, Congo, Central | All residents of Kinshasa | 3018 | Age (years): 44.3±15.3 Male gender: 59% Hypertension: 18% DM: 4% |
Proteinuria =+1 | Proteinuria by urinary strip | Not assessed | 17.1% | Total prevalence (based on proteinuria prevalence): 17.1% Prevalence by age 12–21 years: 8.7% 22–31 years: 11.4% 32–41 years: 18.6% 42–51 years: 18.2% 52–61 years: 18.9% 62–71 years: 22.4% =72 years: 19.7% |
High |
| Egbi76 | 2014, Nigeria, West | All civil servants in Bayelsa | 179 | Age (years): 45.2±10.3 Male gender: 53.1% SBP: 128.5±17.5 mm Hg DBP: 81.8±13.2 mm Hg |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and/or presence of proteinuria of at least +1 on dipstick urinalysis | Proteinuria by urinary strip, eGFR by CG equation standardised for body surface area | Kinetic Jaffe | 5.6% | Total prevalence: 7.8% Prevalence by stage Stage 1:3.4% Stage 2: 2.2% Stage 3: 2.2% None in stage 4 or 5 |
Low |
| Oluyombo105 | 2013, Nigeria, West | Multistage sampling of households of Ilie | 454 | Age (years): 45.8±19.0 Male gender: 43% Hypertension: 20.4% DM: 0.6% |
eGFR <60 mL/min and/or macroalbuminuria (ACR >300 mg/g or dipstick proteinuria) | Proteinuria by urinary strip, negative cases were estimated for albumin-to-creatinine ratio, eGFR by 186 MDRD | Kinetic Jaffe | Macroalbuminuria in 8.9% | Total prevalence: 18.8% Prevalence by stage Stage 1: 2.4% Stage 2: 4.1% Stage 3: 11.8% Stage 4: 0.5% |
High |
| Eastwood13 | 2010, Ghana, West | Inhabitants of 12 villages | 944 | Age (years): 54.7±11.2 Male gender: 38% SBP: 125.5±26.0 mm Hg DBP: 74.4 13.6 mm Hg DM: 4% BMI: 21.1±4.2 kg/m2 |
KDOQI | 175 MDRD, CG, CKD-EPI | Kinetic Jaffe and calibrated IDMS | Total prevalence (based on CKD-EPI and ethnicity correction): 1.7% MDRD: 1.6% (7.2 % without ethnicity correction) CKD-EPI: 1.7% (4.7% without ethnicity correction) CG: 21.0% |
High | |
| Gouda117 | 2011, Egypt, North | Community based in Al-Buhayrah governorate | 417 | Age (years): 39.12±14.29 Male gender: 43.2% Hypertension: 25.20% DM: 10.6% BMI: 29.96±6.18 kg/m2 |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | Quantitative assessment of urinary ACR, eGFR by 175 MDRD | IDMS-calibrated | 10.6% microalbuminuria | Total prevalence: 18% Prevalence by age 18–29 years: 0.8% 30–44 years: 6.1% 45–60 years: 19.6% >60 years: 40% Prevalence by gender Female: 9.6% Male: 12% |
Medium |
| Ayodele77 | 2011, Nigeria, West | People at a major trade centre, the public servant secretariat and the state broadcasting station | 586 | Age (years): 42.4±11.2 Male gender: 61.4% Hypertension: 16.4% DM: 3.8% BMI: 25.9±5.4 kg/m2 |
Proteinuria =+1 | Proteinuria by urinary strip | Not assessed | 2.50% | Total prevalence (based on proteinuria): 2.50% Prevalence by gender Female: 1.7% Male: 3% |
Medium |
| Abu-Aisha78 | 2009, Sudan, East | Pilot survey of police housing complex | 273 | Age (years): 34.3±12 Male gender: 49.1% Hypertension: 27% DM: 5.1% |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and/or proteinuria | Proteinuria by urinary strip, 175 MDRD, CG | Not mentioned | 5.30% | Total prevalence (MDRD): 7.7% (11% by CG) Prevalence by stage Stage 1 or 2: 4.7% Stage 3: 2.6% Stage 4: 0% Stage 5: 0.4% |
Medium |
| Gharbi106 | 2012, Morocco, North | Stratified random sampling of population in two towns | 10 524 | Age (years): range, 25–70 Male gender: 50% Hypertension: 16.7% |
eGFR <60 mL/ min/1.73 m2 or macroalbuminuria or dipstick abnormalities (proteinuria =++1 or haematuria =++1) or diabetes type 1 associated with microalbuminuria |
175 MDRD, microalbuminuria and proteinuria by urinary strip and ACR | Kinetic Jaffe and IDMS | Microalbuminuria (30–299 mg/L): 5.26% | Total prevalence 2.90% | High |
| Odenigbo153 | 2014, Nigeria, West | All attendees to lectures of the Ebreime Foundation for the elderly | 170 | Age (years): 68.1±7.7 Male gender: 67.1% |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | 175 MDRD | IDMS-calibrated | Total prevalence: 43.50% (all cases were at stage 3) Prevalence by age =65 years: 49.1% >65 years: 40.7% Prevalence by gender Female: 64% Male: 33% |
Low | |
| Booysen155 | 2016, South Africa, South |
Participants from families of black African descent | 1221 | Age (years): 44.1±18.4 Male gender: 34.9% BMI (kg/m2): 29.5±8.0 Hypertension: 45% DM: 25.2% |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | eGFR by CG, four variables MDRD, CKD-EPI | IDMS-calibrated | Not measured | Total prevalence: 6.3% | High |
| Kalyesubula90 | 2017, Uganda, East |
Community-based survey among all households of Wakiso District | 955 | Age (years): 31 (IQR: 24–42) Male gender: 33% BMI (kg/m2) categories Underweight: 5.5% Normal: 56.9% Overweight: 24.2% Obese: 13.4% Diabetics: 5.9% |
KDOQI | Proteinuria by dipstick and eGFR by CG, MDRD and CKD-EPI | Kinetic Jaffe | 0.3% | Total prevalence: 15.2% Prevalence by stage Stage 1: 6.2% Stage 2: 12.7% Stage 3: 2.4% Stage 4: 0% Stage 5: 0.1% |
High |
| Kaze91 | 2015, Cameroon, Central-West | Population of the Littoral region | 500 | Age (years): 45.3±13.2 Male gender: 53.4% BMI (kg/m2): 27.1±5.3 DM: 2.8% Hypertension: 12.2% |
Any albuminuria and/or eGFR<60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | Albuminuria by dipstick and eGFR by CG, MDRD, CKD-EPI | Kinetic Jaffe and IDMS | 7.2% | Total prevalence (CKD-EPI): 10% (14.2% by CG, 11% MDRD) Prevalence by gender Female: 9.8% Male: 10.1% |
High |
| Kaze112 | 2015, Cameroon, Central-West | Population of the Western region | 439 | Age (years): 47±16.1 Male gender: 42.1% Hypertension: 10.7% DM: 5.9% |
Albuminuria and/or eGFR <60 mL/min confirmed 3 months later | Albuminuria by dipstick and ACR and eGFR by CG, MDRD, CKD-EPI | Kinetic Jaffe and IDMS | 12.1% had albuminuria | Total prevalence (CKD-EPI): 27.6% (38.5% by CG, 27.3% MDRD) Prevalence by gender Female: 15.4% Male: 10.2% |
High |
| Laurence130 | 2016, South Africa, South | Teachers from public schools in in the urban area of the Metro South Education District | 489 | Age (years): 46.3±8.5 Male gender: 30% BMI (kg/m2) Male: 29.1±4.8 Female: 32.4.1±7 Hypertension: 48.5% DM: 10.1% |
Proteinuria =0.30 mg/mg or eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | Proteinuria by PCR and eGFR using MDRD | Kinetic Jaffe | Not mentioned | Total prevalence: 10.4% Prevalence by gender Female: 10.9% Male: 9% |
Medium |
| Lunyera92 | 2016, Uganda, East | Urban residents of Kampala | 141 | Age (years): 64% in age group of 18–39 Male gender: 43% BMI (kg/m2): 25.9 (IQR 22.7–30.7) Hypertension: 38% Impaired fasting blood glucose: 13% |
Proteinuria as urine protein of =1+ on dipstick in the absence of haematuria and leucocyturia | Proteinuria by dipstick | Not measured | 13% | Total prevalence (based on proteinuria): 13% Prevalence by age 18–39 years: 16% 40–59 years: 4% =60 years: 0% Prevalence by gender Female: 11% Male: 15% |
Low |
| Mogueo131 | 2015, South Africa, South | Household residents of BellVille | 902 | Age (years): 55±15 Male gender: 23% BMI(kg/m2): 29.9±7.2 Hypertension: 49.8% Diabetes mellitus: 27.9% |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 or any nephropathy | Albuminuria by ACR and eGFR by MDRD and CKD-EPI | Kinetic Jaffe | 2.3% | Total prevalence (CKD-EPI): 21.7% (prevalence by MDRD: 29.7%) Prevalence by gender Female: 23.3% Male: 16.6% |
Medium |
| Peck148 | 2016, Tanzania, East | Stratified multistage sampling of adult population in Mwanza City, Geita and Kahama | 1043 | Age (years): 35.5±15.3 Male gender: 45.7% BMI (kg/m2) categories Underweight: 10.5% Normal: 71% Overweight: 11.8% Obese: 6.6% DM: 0.9% Hypertension: 17.3% |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | eGFR by MDRD and CKD-EPI | Kinetic Jaffe | Not measured | Total prevalence (CKD-EPI): 7% Prevalence by age <25 years: 3.4% 25–34 years: 4.9% 35–44 years: 7.2% =45 years: 12.1% Prevalence by gender Female: 6% Male: 7.3% |
High |
| Stanifer132 | 2016, Tanzania, East | Stratified, cluster-designed, cross-sectional household | 481 | Age (years): 46.9±15.1 Male gender: 74.4% DM: 9.4% Hypertension: 31% |
Presence of albuminuria (=30 mg/dL; confirmed by repeat assessment) and/or a reduction in eGFR =60 mL/min/1.73 m2 |
Quantitative assessment of albuminuria and eGFR by MDRD and CKD-EPI | IDMS | 6.8% | Total prevalence: 11.9% | High |
| Stanifer133 | 2015, Tanzania, East | Randomly selected adults | 481 | Age (years): 45 (IQR 35–59) Male gender: 25.6% DM: 12.7% Hypertension: 28% |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and/or persistent albuminuria | Quantitative assessment of albuminuria and eGFR by MDRD | IDMS | Not mentioned | Total prevalence: 7% Prevalence by age 18–39 years: 7.6% 40–59 years: 5.4% 60+ years: 7.7% Prevalence by gender Female: 6.2% Male: 7.9% |
High |
| Stanifer134 | 2016, Tanzania, East | Stratified, cluster-designed, cross-sectional survey | 606 | Age (years): 45.5±15.5 Male gender: 24.6% DM: 10.1% Hypertension: 23.7% |
Presence of albuminuria (=30 mg/dL confirmed by repeat assessment) and/or a once-measured eGFR =60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | Quantitative assessment of albuminuria and eGFR by MDRD | IDMS | Not mentioned | Total prevalence: 8% Prevalence by age 18–39 years: 6.4% 40–59 years: 9.3% 60+ years: 10.5% Prevalence by gender Female: 7.2% Male: 11.4% |
High |
| Wachukwu93 | 2015, Nigeria, West | Adult volunteers in a university | 259 | Age (years):28.3±9.7 Male gender: 52.1% SBP (mm Hg): 117.3±15.5 DBP (mm Hg): 75.7±11.7 |
eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 | Proteinuria by dipstick and eGFR by CG | Not mentioned | 12.4% | Total prevalence: 1.9% | Low |
ACR, albumin to creatinine ratio; BMI, body mass index; CG, Cockroft-Gault; CKD, chronic kidney disease; CKD-EPI, Chronic Kidney Disease-Epidemiology Collaboration; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; DM, diabetes mellitus; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; IDMS, isotope dilution mass spectrometry; KDOQI, Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative; MDRD, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease; SBP, systolic blood pressure.