Table 1.

Overview of adjuvants used in pesticide formulations.

Adjuvant type	Example
Penetration agents	Petroleum or mineral oils, vegetable oils, organosilicon
Oder masking agent	1-octanal
Dyes	fd&c blue no. 1, fd&c red no. 40
Preservatives	Hexamethylenetetramine, potassium benzoate, sorbic acid
Stabilizer	Diisopropanolamine, hydroxyethylidene diphosphonic acid, silver nitrate
Diluents	Aluminum hydroxide
Surfactants	Anionic: alkylbenzene sulfonates, sodium laureth sulfate, soap
	Cationic: dioctadecyldimethylammonium chloride
	Amphoteric: cocamidopropyl betaine, cocamidopropyl hydroxysultaine
	Non-ionic: alkoxylated alcohol, ethoxylated alcohol, nonylphenol ethoxylate, tallow amine ethoxylate, alkyl polyoxyethylene ether
Emulsifiers	Alkanoic and alkenoic acids, monoesters and diesters of α-hydro-ω-hydroxypoly (oxyethylene), glyceryl monostearate, sodium metasilicate
Propellant	1,1-Difluoroethane, butane, propane
Solvents	N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, polychloromethanes, chlorinated volatile organic compounds, xylene, isopropanol
Antifoaming agent	silicones (e.g., dimethylpolysiloxane), fatty acids
Carriers	Biochar, cyanobacteria, clay minerals, siliceous minerals, zinc-layered hydroxide, polymeric materials such as chitosan, lignin, and poly(ethylene) glycol

This non-exhaustive list presents compounds grouped by category that are classically used as adjuvants in commercial pesticide formulations. Some of these molecules can have dual roles. For instance, surfactants (wetters) are also used as plant penetration agents. Compiled from Ref. (13–16).