Figure 4.

Proposed mechanisms for anti- inflammatory effects of inulin and butyrate. Prebiotics (e.g. inulin) produce metabolites such as butyrate that could promote beneficial commensally bacteria in intestinal. They can inhibit the NF-κB pathway and alleviate inflammation. NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa- B; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; Ang II: angiotensin II; CRP: C-reactive protein; MDA: malondialdehyde; SCFAs: short chain fatty acids, A. muciniphila: Akkermansia muciniphila

↑: increased level, ⊥: inhibition.