Table 2.
Associations of daily coffee consumption and all-cause and cause-specific mortality among men and women.
| Category of coffee consumption (mL/day) | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||||
| Non-consumers | Q1 Low consumption | Q2 Medium-low consumption | Q3 Medium-high consumption | Q4 High consumption | P-trend | Per cup | |
| All-cause | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 1039 | 4,972 | 4,440 | 4,250 | 3,601 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.83–0.95) | 0.89 (0.83–0.95) | 0.90 (0.84–0.96) | 1.07 (0.99–1.15) | <0.001 | |
| Basic model plus smoking variables - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.88 (0.82–0.94) | 0.83 (0.77–0.89) | 0.78 (0.73–0.84) | 0.83 (0.77–0.89) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.87–1.00) | 0.88 (0.82–0.95) | 0.84 (0.78–0.90) | 0.88 (0.82–0.95) | <0.001 | 0.97 (0.96–0.98) |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 1,817 | 6,882 | 5,236 | 5,294 | 4,162 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.85–0.95) | 0.90 (0.85–0.95) | 0.95 (0.90–1.01) | 1.10 (1.04–1.16) | <0.001 | |
| Basic model plus smoking variables - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.86–0.96) | 0.87 (0.82–0.91) | 0.87 (0.82–0.92) | 0.90 (0.85–0.96) | 0.004 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.89–0.99) | 0.90 (0.85–0.95) | 0.90 (0.85–0.95) | 0.93 (0.87–0.98) | 0.009 | 0.99 (0.98–1.00) |
| Cancer (C00-D48) | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 386 | 1,923 | 1,861 | 1,816 | 1628 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.81–1.01) | 1.01 (0.90–1.13) | 1.04 (0.93–1.16) | 1.27 (1.13–1.42) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.92 (0.82–1.03) | 0.97 (0.86–1.08) | 0.92 (0.82–1.03) | 0.99 (0.88–1.11) | 0.45 | 1.00 (0.99–1.02) |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 645 | 2,917 | 2,305 | 2,417 | 2,105 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.90–1.07) | 1.07 (0.98–1.17) | 1.12 (1.03–1.23) | 1.33 (1.22–1.46) | <0.001 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 1.00 (0.92–1.10) | 1.05 (0.96–1.15) | 1.04 (0.95–1.14) | 1.12 (1.02–1.23) | 0.001 | 1.03 (1.01–1.04) |
| Circulatory diseases (I00-I99) | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 257 | 1352 | 1148 | 1091 | 922 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.84–1.10) | 0.91 (0.80–1.05) | 0.92 (0.80–1.05) | 1.12 (0.97–1.29) | 0.03 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.89–1.17) | 0.93 (0.80–1.07) | 0.87 (0.76–1.00) | 0.93 (0.80–1.08) | 0.004 | 0.97 (0.95–0.99) |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 334 | 1399 | 968 | 959 | 676 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.75–0.96) | 0.75 (0.66–0.85) | 0.82 (0.72–0.93) | 0.94 (0.82–1.08) | 0.95 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.78–1.01) | 0.74 (0.65–0.85) | 0.77 (0.67–0.88) | 0.78 (0.68–0.90) | <0.001 | 0.96 (0.94–0.99) |
| Cerebrovascular diseases (I60-I69) | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 58 | 284 | 231 | 195 | 150 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.66–1.19) | 0.80 (0.60–1.08) | 0.77 (0.57–1.04) | 0.92 (0.67–1.25) | 0.42 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.70–1.27) | 0.83 (0.61–1.12) | 0.76 (0.56–1.04) | 0.83 (0.60–1.14) | 0.04 | 0.94 (0.89–0.99) |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 114 | 472 | 358 | 317 | 201 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.67–1.03) | 0.78 (0.63–0.98) | 0.77 (0.62–0.97) | 0.82 (0.64–1.04) | 0.15 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.68–1.05) | 0.77 (0.62–0.96) | 0.74 (0.59–0.92) | 0.70 (0.55–0.90) | 0.002 | 0.94 (0.90–0.99) |
| Ischemic heart disease (I20-I25) | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 112 | 597 | 533 | 534 | 474 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.77–1.15) | 0.92 (0.75–1.13) | 0.94 (0.77–1.15) | 1.15 (0.94–1.42) | 0.015 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 1.03 (0.84–1.26) | 0.96 (0.78–1.18) | 0.92 (0.75–1.13) | 0.97 (0.79–1.20) | 0.24 | 0.99 (0.96–1.02) |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 83 | 415 | 296 | 266 | 216 | ||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.96 (0.75–1.23) | 0.84 (0.65–1.09) | 0.81 (0.63–1.05) | 1.07 (0.83–1.40) | 0.96 | |
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 1.03 (0.80–1.32) | 0.83 (0.64–1.08) | 0.74 (0.57–0.96) | 0.82 (0.62–1.07) | <0.001 | 0.94 (0.90–0.98) |
| Digestive diseases (K00-K93) § | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 274 | 144 | 105 | 82 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.72 (0.59–0.89) | 0.53 (0.42–0.67) | 0.55 (0.42–0.70) | <0.0001 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.69 (0.56–0.85) | 0.46 (0.37–0.59) | 0.41 (0.32–0.54) | <0.0001 | 0.77 (0.72–0.81) | |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 273 | 134 | 122 | 79 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.75 (0.60–0.92) | 0.76 (0.61–0.94) | 0.77 (0.60–1.00) | 0.004 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.70 (0.56–0.86) | 0.67 (0.54–0.84) | 0.60 (0.46–0.78) | <0.0001 | 0.86 (0.81–0.92) | |
| Respiratory diseases (J30-J98) § | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 240 | 162 | 161 | 151 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.73–1.09) | 1.03 (0.84–1.27) | 1.55 (1.25–1.91) | 0.004 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.81 (0.66–0.99) | 0.84 (0.69–1.04) | 1.05 (0.84–1.30) | 0.62 | 1.01 (0.96–1.06) | |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 316 | 212 | 185 | 162 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 1.08 (0.91–1.29) | 1.16 (0.96–1.40) | 1.74 (1.43–2.13) | <0.0001 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.79–1.14) | 0.83 (0.69–1.01) | 0.91 (0.74–1.12) | 0.14 | 0.98 (0.94–1.03) | |
| External causes (S00-Y98) § | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 285 | 181 | 187 | 183 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.70–1.02) | 0.87 (0.72–1.05) | 1.03 (0.85–1.25) | 0.66 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.68–1.00) | 0.82 (0.68–1.00) | 0.90 (0.74–1.10) | 0.10 | 0.96 (0.91–1.01) | |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 284 | 157 | 157 | 137 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.76–1.13) | 0.93 (0.76–1.14) | 1.07 (0.86–1.32) | 0.96 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.76–1.13) | 0.91 (0.74–1.11) | 0.96 (0.77–1.20) | 0.47 | 0.98 (0.93–1.04) | |
| Suicide (X60-X84) § | |||||||
| Men | |||||||
| N deaths | 91 | 51 | 47 | 53 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.55–1.10) | 0.72 (0.50–1.03) | 0.91 (0.64–1.30) | 0.25 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 0.75 (0.52–1.06) | 0.64 (0.44–0.92) | 0.71 (0.50–1.02) | 0.02 | 0.90 (0.83–0.98) | |
| Women | |||||||
| N deaths | 67 | 40 | 31 | 38 | |||
| Basic model - HR (95% CI) † | 1.00 | 1.06 (0.71–1.58) | 0.81 (0.52–1.25) | 1.19 (0.78–1.81) | 0.82 | ||
| Multivariable model - HR (95% CI) ‡ | 1.00 | 1.06 (0.71–1.59) | 0.77 (0.50–1.20) | 0.98 (0.63–1.51) | 0.61 | 0.97 (0.87–1.09) | |
Basic model – Cox regression using total energy intake (kcal/day) and stratified by age (1-year categories) and center.
Multivariable model - Cox regression using body mass index (<22; 22–<25; 25–<30; 30–<35; 35+ kg/m2), physical activity index (inactive; moderately inactive; moderately active; active), education status (none; primary school completed; technical/professional school; secondary school; longer education including university; or not specified), alcohol consumption (non-consumers; <5; 5–<15; 15–<30; 30+ g/day), smoking status and intensity (never; current, 1–15 cigarettes per day; current, 16–25 cigarettes per day; current, 16+ cigarettes per day; former, quit ≤10 years; former, quit 11–20 years; former, quit 20+ years; current, pipe/cigar/occasional; current/former, missing; unknown), smoking duration (<10; 10–<20; 20–<30; 30–<40; 40+ years; smoking duration unknown), ever use of contraceptive pill (yes; no; or unknown), menopausal status (premenopausal; postmenopausal; perimenopausal/unknown menopausal status; or surgical postmenopausal), ever use of menopausal hormone therapy (yes; no; or unknown), and intakes of total energy (kcal/day), red and processed meat (g/day), and fruits and vegetables (g/day) (all continuous), and stratified by age (1-year categories), and center.
Categories were based on country-specific quartiles of coffee consumption after exclusion of non-consumers. Quartile cut-offs (in mL) were: Denmark: 500, 900 and 1,300; France: 150, 280 and 450; Germany: 261, 395 and 580; Greece: 70, 140 and 240; Italy: 60, 92 and 138; The Netherlands: 375, 500 and 750; Norway: 300, 420 and 540; Spain: 50, 105 and 196; Sweden: 300, 400 and 601; and the United Kingdom: 83, 380 and 488.
Due to low case numbers among non-consumers, reference category merged with low consumers (Q1).