Table 3.
Crude and adjusted odds ratios and associated 95% confidence intervals of prostate cancer risk for the intakes of carotenoid and their sources.
| Nutrient or Food | Mean Intake (SD) | Case, n (%) | Control, n (%) | OR (95% CI) | Adjusted OR † (95% CI) | p for Linear Trend ‡ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lycopene (μg/day) | ||||||
| <648 | 388.9 (109.2) | 77 (31.6) | 136 (33.3) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 648–1200 | 809.6 (184.1) | 124 (50.8) | 137 (33.6) | 1.60 (1.11, 2.32) | 0.83 (0.52, 1.34) | 0.003 |
| >1200 | 2810.5 (1918.6) | 43 (17.6) | 135 (33.1) | 0.56 (0.36, 0.87) | 0.46 (0.27, 0.77) | |
| α-carotene (μg/day) | ||||||
| <743 | 547.7 (135.1) | 89 (36.5) | 136 (33.3) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 743–976 | 861.7 (82.7) | 105 (43.0) | 136 (33.3) | 1.18 (0.82, 1.71) | 1.19 (0.78, 1.83) | 0.307 |
| >976 | 1336.9 (367.7) | 50 (20.5) | 136 (33.3) | 0.56 (0.37, 0.85) | 0.77 (0.47, 1.26) | |
| β-carotene (μg/day) | ||||||
| <3920 | 2841.3 (601.1) | 74 (30.3) | 137 (33.6) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 3920–5780 | 4672.6 (625.9) | 120 (49.2) | 135 (33.1) | 1.65 (1.13, 2.40) | 1.41 (0.91, 2.19) | 0.248 |
| >5780 | 8904.4 (3828.9) | 50 (20.5) | 136 (33.3) | 0.68 (0.44, 1.04) | 0.73 (0.44, 1.22) | |
| β-Cryptoxanthin (μg/day) | ||||||
| <539 | 404.8 (102.9) | 62 (25.4) | 137 (33.6) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 539–867 | 705.1 (93) | 100 (41.0) | 135 (33.1) | 1.64 (1.10, 2.44) | 1.63 (1.03, 2.60) | 0.303 |
| >867 | 1388.5 (550.8) | 82 (33.6) | 136 (33.3) | 1.33 (0.89, 2.00) | 1.29 (0.79, 2.09) | |
| Lutein and zeaxanthin (μg/day) | ||||||
| <1670 | 1234.6 (293.3) | 69 (28.3) | 137 (33.6) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 1670–2580 | 2081.7 (272.9) | 122 (50.0) | 135 (33.1) | 1.79 (1.23, 2.63) | 1.50 (0.97, 2.34) | 0.223 |
| >2580 | 4269.3 (1708.0) | 53 (21.7) | 136 (33.3) | 0.77 (0.50, 1.19) | 0.73 (0.44, 1.20) | |
| Tomato (g/day) | ||||||
| <7.1 | 3.1 (2.1) | 87 (35.7) | 136 (33.3) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 7.1–16.5 | 10.6 (3.4) | 114 (46.7) | 136 (33.3) | 1.31 (0.91, 1.89) | 0.68 (0.43, 1.06) | <0.001 |
| >16.5 | 47.9 (39.6) | 43 (17.6) | 136 (33.3) | 0.49 (0.32, 0.76) | 0.39 (0.23, 0.66) | |
| Carrot (g/day) | ||||||
| <1 | 0.4 (0.3) | 111 (45.5) | 139 (34.1) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 1–3.2 | 2 (0.7) | 94 (38.5) | 132 (32.4) | 0.89 (0.62, 1.28) | 0.61 (0.39, 0.94) | <0.001 |
| >3.2 | 7.8 (8.7) | 39 (16.0) | 137 (33.6) | 0.36 (0.23, 0.55) | 0.35 (0.21, 0.58) | |
| Pumpkin (g/day) | ||||||
| <6.4 | 3.3 (2.1) | 69 (28.3) | 138 (33.8) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 6.4–20.5 | 12 (3.6) | 101 (41.4) | 135 (33.1) | 1.50 (1.02, 2.21) | 1.01 (0.64, 1.59) | 0.423 |
| >20.5 | 34.5 (19.3) | 74 (30.3) | 135 (33.1) | 1.10 (0.73, 1.64) | 0.82 (0.51, 1.32) | |
| Sweet potato (g/day) | ||||||
| <2.4 | 0.2 (0.3) | 51 (20.9) | 135 (33.1) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 2.4–7.7 | 2.3 (0.9) | 76 (31.1) | 138 (33.8) | 1.46 (0.95, 2.24) | 0.84 (0.49, 1.44) | 0.291 |
| >7.7 | 22.0 (33.6) | 117 (48.0) | 135 (33.1) | 2.29 (1.53, 3.46) | 1.32 (0.79, 2.24) | |
| Watermelon (g/day) | ||||||
| <4.5 | 0.7 (0.8) | 46 (18.9) | 136 (33.3) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 4.5–17.6 | 10.7 (5.9) | 132 (54.1) | 137 (33.6) | 2.85 (1.90, 4.33) | 2.12 (1.31, 3.45) | 0.373 |
| >17.6 | 59.9 (56.1) | 66 (27.0) | 135 (33.1) | 1.45 (0.93, 2.27) | 1.27 (0.76, 2.13) | |
| Citrus fruits (g/day) | ||||||
| <1.3 | 0.2 (0.3) | 51 (20.9) | 134 (32.8) | 1.00 reference | 1.00 reference | |
| 1.3–6 | 2.5 (1.3) | 133 (54.5) | 138 (33.8) | 2.53 (1.70, 3.80) | 1.74 (1.06, 2.89) | 0.713 |
| >6 | 21.8 (32.4) | 60 (24.6) | 136 (33.3) | 1.16 (0.74, 1.81) | 0.91 (0.53, 1.55) |
† ORs were adjusted for education level (primary, high, and tertiary), marital status (married, never married, or separated), smoking habit (never, former, current), prostate cancer in the first-degree relatives (yes, no), life-long physical activity (never, past active, regular), age (year), body mass index (kg/m2), ethanol consumption (g/day), and total energy intake (kcal/day); SD: standard deviation; OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence intervals; ‡ based on the adjusted models.