Table 2.
ANOVA and PSM estimation of households’ livelihood strategies and outcomes
| Livelihood strategies and outcomes | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HHn, oc | HHr, sc | HHn,sc | Sig. | ATT | t | |
| Activities participation choice | ||||||
| Agricultural work | 0.94 | 0.88 | 0.90 | ns | −0.05 | (−2.95)** |
| Livestock | 0.75 | 0.59 | 0.59 | *** | −0.13 | (−3.49)** |
| Non-farm self-employment | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.12 | ns | −0.01 | (−0.28) |
| Rural–urban cyclic migration | 0.55 | 0.64 | 0.54 | ** | 0.01 | (0.25) |
| Input and output | ||||||
| Agriculture | ||||||
| Utilization of farmyard manure | 0.91 | 0.66 | 0.74 | *** | −0.05 | (−2.25)** |
| Utilization of chemical fertilizer | 0.96 | 0.78 | 0.84 | *** | −0.11 | (−3.45)*** |
| Avg. labor input (day/hectare) | 127.46 | 207.91 | 149.4 | *** | 53.13 | (38.06)** |
| Avg. fertilizer (yuan/hectare) | 274.63 | 447.76 | 298.51 | ** | 138.06 | (43.28)*** |
| Avg. material (yuan/hectare) | 482.84 | 825.07 | 502.54 | ** | 274.63 | (22.84) |
| Avg. income (yuan/hectare) | 2441.64 | 7558.21 | 7246.12 | *** | 2378.21 | (28.96)* |
| Rural–urban migration | ||||||
| Migration types | ||||||
| Within local county | 0.16 | 0.27 | 0.21 | ** | 0.08 | (1.99)* |
| Out of county | 0.89 | 0.75 | 0.82 | *** | −0.09 | (−2.24)** |
| Migrants (migration HHs) | 1.35 | 1.54 | 1.39 | ** | 0.10 | (1.34) |
| Local (local migration HHs) | 1.16 | 1.31 | 1.17 | ns | 0.17 | (1.82)* |
| Out (out-migration HHs) | 1.3 | 1.56 | 1.38 | *** | 0.08 | (0.96) |
| Remittance (migration HHs) | 5801.78 | 9461.77 | 8228.01 | *** | 2195.96 | (2.16)** |
| Local (local migration HHs) | 7572.22 | 7730.15 | 7246.49 | ns | 1226.66 | (0.71) |
| Out (out-migration HHs) | 5135 | 9652.62 | 8070.90 | *** | 758.51 | (0.66) |
| Per capita (Migration HHs) | 4529.61 | 6794.22 | 6139.78 | ** | 1515.07 | (1.96)* |
| Income | ||||||
| Total income | 13 871.62 | 26 945.19 | 20 886.05 | *** | 5074.96 | (2.35)** |
| Agricultural | 3839.16 | 8422.29 | 9518.51 | *** | −836.56 | (−0.54) |
| Livestock | 2091.93 | 1616.85 | 1241.98 | ** | −83.81 | (−0.33) |
| Non-farm | 2527.22 | 3531.68 | 3284.80 | ns | 303.22 | (0.25) |
| Remittance | 3216.83 | 6028.27 | 4475.76 | * | 1337.78 | (1.83)* |
| Subsidy | 1367.01 | 5089.35 | 1207.61 | *** | 3799.52 | (8.93)*** |
| Other | 829.45 | 2138.79 | 1056.04 | * | 794.21 | (2.23)** |
| Per capita | 4646.68 | 6876.93 | 6575.57 | *** | 1490.98 | (2.63)*** |
| Cash income | 9950.16 | 21 521.06 | 14 706.66 | *** | 5855.42 | (2.92)*** |
| Cash proportion | 0.57 | 0.76 | 0.66 | *** | 0.10 | (4.02)*** |
| Expenditure | ||||||
| Total expenditure | 11 023.83 | 39 454.83 | 18 810.87 | *** | 18 805.33 | (5.59)*** |
| House and durables | 1542.22 | 19 371.29 | 2730.24 | *** | 16 412.60 | (5.45)*** |
| Food | 2425.20 | 6752.88 | 6103.08 | *** | 285.77 | (0.67) |
| Education | 1310.89 | 2533.66 | 1975.69 | ** | 213.24 | (0.55) |
| Medical | 1552.92 | 2985.70 | 2006.99 | *** | 901.70 | (2.20)** |
| Energy | 826.01 | 957.01 | 1068.83 | * | −74.40 | (−0.83) |
| Social network | 1592.68 | 4071.90 | 3027.51 | *** | 917.48 | (2.37)** |
| Productive input | 1212.23 | 699.29 | 691.59 | ** | −82.45 | (−0.61) |
| Per capita | 3809.42 | 10 276.96 | 5570.70 | *** | 5247.66 | (4.75)*** |
| Poverty rate | 0.36 | 0.27 | 0.30 | * | −0.07 | (−1.79)* |
| Loan | 4850.49 | 14 596.41 | 4053.54 | *** | 6326.04 | (2.93)** |
| Loan rate | 0.24 | 0.44 | 0.26 | *** | 0.06 | (1.72)* |
t statistics are shown in parentheses
HHs households
*, **, and *** denote differences that are significant at p < 0.1, p < 0.05, and p < 0.01 levels, respectively