Table 3.
Antibiotic-induced dysbiosis models and their impact on the neuroendocrine system
| Antibiotics | Administration duration |
Animal model | Stress model | HPA axis | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AMP (0.5 g/l), streptomycin (0.5 g/l), vancomycin (0.5 g/l), metronidazole (0.5 g/l), splenda (4 g/l) |
Drinking water; during gestation and until weaning (day 21) |
Foxp3 reporter mice on C57BL/6 background; sex not listed | No stress | ↔CORT (day 7, serum, thymus, proximal colon, cecum) (↑)CORT (day 21 and 42, serum) ↑CORT(day 21 and 42, thymus, proximal colon, cecum) |
[127] |
| Bacitracin (24 mg/ml), neomycin (24 mg/ml), AMP (9.6 mg/ml), meropenem (4.8 mg/ml), vancomycin (1.44 mg/ml) | Oral gavage; 10 days |
C57BL/6N mice; ♂ |
No stress | ↑CORT (plasma, after last day of treatment) | [129] |
| AMP (120 mg/kg) or AMP(120 mg/kg) and Lactobacillus fermentum NS9 (AMP light phase, water/NS9 dark phase) |
Drinking water; 41 days |
Sprague–Dawley rats; ♂ |
No stress | ↑CORT (AMP, serum, after MWM on the last day of treatment) ↔GR (HIP) ↓MR (AMP, HIP) |
[131] |
| Vancomycin 10, 30, or 100 mg/kg | Oral gavage; 10 days |
Sprague–Dawley rats; ♂ |
No stress | ↔CORT (plasma, 10 weeks after treatment) | [132] |
| 0.5% neomycin and 1% AMP | Drinking water; 12 days |
Wistar rats; ♀ | Acute partial restraint stress (2 h) | ┤CORT (plasma, immediately after stress) ┤CRF mRNA (HYP) |
[80] |
| AMP (1 mg/ml), vancomycin (5 mg/ml), neomycin (10 mg/ml), metronidazole (10 mg/ml), amphotericin B (0.1 mg/ml) | Drinking water; 59 days |
NIH Swiss mice; ♂ |
Acute restraint stress (30 min) | ↔CORT (plasma, immediately after stress) ↔CRF mRNA (HYP) |
[133] |
| AMP (1 g/l), vancomycin (500 mg/l), ciprofloxacin HCl (20 mg/l), imipenem (250 mg/l), metronidazole (1 g/l) |
Drinking water; 13 weeks |
Sprague–Dawley rats; ♂ |
Acute FST | ↔CORT (during FST) ↓NR3C1 mRNA (AMY, HIP) ↔NR3C2 mRNA (AMY, HIP) ↓CRFR1 mRNA (AMY, HIP) ↔CRFR2 mRNA (AMY, HIP) 3 weeks after FST |
[134] |
| Streptomycin sulfate (2 mg/ml) and penicillin G (1500 U/ml) | Drinking water; 21 days |
Sprague–Dawley rats; ♂ |
Psychological stress—chronic mild stress (21 days) | ┤CORT (plasma, immediately after stress) | [135] |
| Minimum dose: 0.4 mg bacitracin, 0.4 mg neomycin, 0.1 mg amphotericin B per mouse/day | Oral gavage and drinking water; 7 days |
C57BL/6N mice; ♀ |
Repetitive psychological stress—WAS (1 h/day, 7 days) | ↔CORT (immediately after stress) ↔Weight of the adrenal glands |
[136] |
↔ = no change; ┤= prevention of stress-induced increase; ↓ = decrease; ↑ = increase; () = trend; HPA = hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal; CORT = corticosterone; NS9 = Lactobacillus fermentum NS9; AMP = ampicillin; MWM = Morris water maze; GR = glucocorticoid receptor; HIP = hippocampus; MR = mineralocorticoid receptor; CRF = corticotropin-releasing hormone; HYP = hypothalamus; FST = forced swim test; NR3C1 = nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 1 (glucocorticoid receptor); NR3C2 = nuclear receptor subfamily 3, group C, member 2 (mineralocorticoid receptor); AMY = amygdala; CRFR1 = corticotrophin-releasing hormone receptor 1; CRFR2 = corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 2; WAS = water avoidance stress