Table 3.

Published examples of increased affinities resulting from multivalent types of protein-ligand interaction.

First Binding Partner	Second Binding Partner	Type of Complex Formed	Gain in Affinity	References
S protein	Phospholipid bilayer	Multimeric protein S	>250 fold	[97]
MBD protein	DNA CpG sites	Tetrameric MBD	>50 fold	[98]
Grb SH3 domain	Proline-rich motif of SOS	Two SH3 domains and five proline-rich motifs	>100 fold	[99]
ZAP70 SH2 domain	ITAM motifs of Syk kinase	Two SH2 domains and two ITAM motifs	>100 fold	[100]
HPV E6 protein	Peptidic ligand	Bivalent peptidic ligand	>300 fold	[101]
Lectins	Sugar ligands	Multimeric lectins and ligands	1–3 orders of magnitude	[102]
Staphylococcal protein A	Affibody	Dimeric affibody	3 orders of magnitude	[103]
Monoclonal IgG I	Fcγ receptors RIIA and RIIIB	Dimeric IgG I	200–800 fold	[104]
Receptor tyrosine kinase VEGFR-2	Peptidic ligand	Dimeric peptidic ligand	6–500 fold	[105]
E. coli heat-labile enterotoxin (pentamer)	Galactose (monomer)	Five galactose moieties linked by a pentavalent scaffold	>104 fold	[106,107]