Figure 1.

Schematic overview of the study design and driving cycle. (A) The Volvo flexfuel car was driven on a chassis dynamometer using conventional lead-free gasoline fuel. ECs were exposed to 1:10 diluted exhaust for 6 h (reference exhaust, GPF cleaned, or filtered ambient air) and subsequently analyzed for immune and cell toxic effects. (B) The “worldwide harmonized light-duty vehicles test cycle” (WLTC) represents a standardization of an averaged driving pattern. Figure adapted from²⁷. Abbreviations: CO, carbon monoxide; CO₂, carbon dioxide; GPF, gasoline particle filter; NO_x, nitrogen oxide; T.HC, total hydrocarbon.