Table 1.
Effects of cigarette smoke on the gastrointestinal tract.
| Effect of cigarette smoke | Associated disease | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Lumen composition (mucus and microbiota) | ||
| Inhibition of mucus synthesis by interference with epidermal grow factor (EGF) expression and polyamines synthesis. | Gastric and peptic ulcer | (10, 11) |
| Alteration on mucus composition, related with an increment on Muc2 and Muc3 expression in the ileum and Muc4 expression in the colon. | IBD | (12) |
| Dysbiosis of gut resident microbiota, with an increase of Firmicutes and Actinobacteria and a decrease of Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria. | IBD | (13, 14) |
| Integrity of mucosa composition | ||
| Impaired barrier of the small intestine due to increase of intestinal permeability and alteration of tight junctions. | CD | (15) |
| Inhibition of angiogenesis during ulcer healing by dysregulation of nitric oxide (NO) production. | Gastric ulcer | (10, 16) |
| Alteration of microvasculature, impairing vascular endothelial grown factor (VEGF) pathway, promotes ischemia in the gut. | Gastric ulcer and CD | (10, 15) |
| Cellular apoptosis due to increased reactive oxygen species and mechanical effects. | Gastric, esophageal and colon cancer | (17–19) |
| Effects related with immune response | ||
| Induction of proinflammatory chemokines and cytokines (CCR6, CCL20, IL-8) in the ileum. | CD | (20) |
| Alteration of dendritic cell phenotype including an increase in the expression of MHC-II and costimulatory molecules. | UC | (21) |
| Increased recruitment of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and of CD11b+ dendritic cells on Ileum. | CD | (19, 22) |