Table 1.

Noninvasive imaging methods

Technique	Method	Device	Variable unit	What does it measure?	Studies in youth with type 2 diabetes
Carotid thickness
Carotid intima Media thickness	B mode ultrasound	Ultrasound with linear array transducer	mm	Thickness of the intima media layer of the carotid artery either in the common carotid, bulb carotid, or internal carotid	Ref. [32–36]
Carotid stiffness
Young’s elastic modulus, Beta stiffness index	M mode Ultrasound	Ultrasound with linear array transducer	YEM (mm Hg/mm); beta (unitless)	Stiffness in the carotid artery	Ref. [33]
Arterial stiffness
Brachial distensibility	Oscillmetric systolic/diastolic blood pressure	Pulsemetric DynaPulse	%change/mmHg	Resting distensibility of the medium muscular artery in the arm. Lower is worse	Ref. [44, 47]
Pulse wave velocity	Applanation tonometry	AtCor SphygmoCor	m/s	Speed of pulse wave along an arterial segment	Ref. [44, 47]
Augmentation index	Applanation tonometry	AtCor SphygmoCor	%	Increase in central systolic pressure due to reflected wave as a percentage of central pulse pressure	Ref. [44, 47]
Endothelial function
Brachial artery flow mediated dilation	Ultrasound	Ultrasound	FMD max (%)	FMD max is maximum % change at any time period post occlusion (30 to 120 s)	Ref. [34, 52, 55•]
Peripheral arterial tonometry	EndoPat	Itamar	%	Increase in blood flow in the digit after release of occlusion normalized to the control finger	No published studies
Microvascular endothelial function	Laser Doppler	Perimed	Perfusion units	Change in perfusion units after heating	No published studies