Table 2.
Associations between Age at First Parental Incarceration and Drug Use and Sex Riska in Adolescence and Adulthood.
| Adolescence | Adulthood | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
|
|
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| % with Outcome | Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)b | % with Outcome | Odds Ratio (95% CI) | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% CI)c | |
| Total Sample (n = 11,884) | ||||||
| Marijuana | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 25.5 | Ref | Ref | 21.7 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 43.2 | 2.22 (1.73, 2.86) | 2.55 (1.95, 3.34) | 36.4 | 2.06 (1.64, 2.59) | 1.89 (1.47, 2.42) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 35.9 | 1.64 (1.26, 2.12) | 1.70 (1.29, 2.24) | 29.1 | 1.48 (1.10, 1.98) | 1.47 (1.07, 2.01) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 28.4 | 1.43 (1.06, 1.93) | 1.32 (0.96, 1.82) |
| Cocaine | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 3.1 | Ref | Ref | 19.6 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 5.9 | 1.98 (1.15, 3.41) | 1.92 (0.91, 4.05) | 30.3 | 1.78 (1.39, 2.29) | 1.86 (1.38, 2.50) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 6.2 | 2.09 (1.29, 3.38) | 2.03 (1.14, 3.61) | 23.9 | 1.29 (0.94, 1.78) | 1.35 (0.93, 1.97) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 27.3 | 1.54 (1.10, 2.16) | 1.66 (1.16, 2.37) |
| Multiple Partners | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 18.3 | Ref | Ref | 24.1 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 27.3 | 1.68 (1.27, 2.21) | 1.72 (1.25, 2.37) | 33.0 | 1.55 (1.23, 1.96) | 1.40 (1.07, 1.83) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 25.8 | 1.55 (1.18, 2.03) | 1.48 (1.10, 1.99) | 23.1 | 0.95 (0.70, 1.29) | 0.81 (0.56, 1.16) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 31.5 | 1.45 (1.12, 1.86) | 1.37 (1.03, 1.84) |
| STI | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 1.5 | Ref | Ref | 2.9 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 2.9 | 1.99 (1.21, 3.28) | 1.74 (0.92, 3.30) | 6.6 | 2.33 (1.47, 3.71) | 1.84 (1.04, 3.28) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 2.8 | 1.90 (1.02, 3.55) | 0.93 (0.43, 2.00) | 7.8 | 2.77 (1.78, 4.30) | 1.72 (0.95, 3.10) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | 5.3 | 1.84 (1.06, 3.21) | 2.09 (1.20, 3.65) | |||
| White (n = 6397) | ||||||
| Marijuana | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 26.2 | Ref | Ref | 23.2 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 41.0 | 1.96 (1.40, 2.74) | 2.53 (1.81, 3.55) | 38.2 | 2.04 (1.50, 2.78) | 1.72 (1.22, 2.43) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 37.1 | 1.67 (1.10, 2.52) | 1.71 (1.17, 2.51) | 34.8 | 1.76 (1.19, 2.60) | 1.44 (0.95, 2.19) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 28.4 | 1.31 (0.86, 2.00) | 1.19 (0.77, 1.85) |
| Cocaine | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 3.4 | Ref | Ref | 23.2 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 5.4 | 1.60 (0.97, 2.66) | 1.36 (0.66, 2.82) | 36.6 | 1.91 (1.40, 2.62) | 1.55 (1.10, 2.18) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 7.6 | 2.34 (1.27, 4.33) | 1.98 (0.95, 4.10) | 31.8 | 1.55 (0.98, 2.44) | 1.19 (0.71, 1.98) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 35.8 | 1.85 (1.23, 2.78) | 1.74 (1.14, 2.66) |
| Multiple Partners | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 16.9 | Ref | Ref | 21.9 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 23.9 | 1.54 (1.04, 2.27) | 1.97 (1.31, 2.96) | 27.9 | 1.38 (0.99, 1.92) | 1.17 (0.78, 1.76) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 24.6 | 1.60 (1.02, 2.52) | 1.59 (0.98, 2.59) | 19.8 | 0.88 (0.51, 1.51) | 0.84 (0.47, 1.52) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 29.4 | 1.48 (1.07, 2.06) | 1.42 (0.98, 2.04) |
| STI | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 0.9 | Ref | Ref | 1.9 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 0.9 | 0.98 (0.32, 3.08) | 1.04 (0.23, 4.69) | 3.7 | 1.97 (0.95, 4.10) | 2.05 (0.94, 4.48) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 1.1 | 1.27 (0.20, 7.88) | Unable to converge | 3.8 | 2.05 (0.92, 4.56) | 2.00 (0.85, 4.71) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 3.4 | 1.85 (0.68, 5.03) | 2.03 (0.81, 5.11) |
| Black (n = 2501) | ||||||
| Marijuana | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 22.0 | Ref | Ref | 17.8 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 42.6 | 2.63 (1.68, 4.11) | 2.30 (1.26, 4.19) | 36.8 | 2.69 (1.79, 4.04) | 2.53 (1.62, 3.95) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 28.9 | 1.44 (0.96, 2.17) | 1.42 (0.93, 2.17) | 24.6 | 1.50 (0.86, 2.63) | 1.73 (0.83, 3.58) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 21.2 | 1.24 (0.68, 2.28) | 1.28 (0.69, 2.37) |
| Cocaine | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 1.5 | Ref | Ref | 4.1 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 2.6 | 1.83 (0.55, 6.09) | 2.13 (0.58, 7.82) | 13.2 | 3.57 (1.85, 6.87)* | 4.41 (2.05, 9.48)* |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 0.8 | 0.57 (0.08, 3.82) | 0.69 (0.09, 5.23) | 6.5 | 1.62 (0.70, 3.72) | 2.35 (0.90, 6.14) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 2.6 | 0.63 (0.13, 2.94) | 1.04 (0.18, 5.93) |
| Multiple Partners | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 28.9 | Ref | Ref | 35.6 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 36.6 | 1.41 (0.90, 2.23) | 1.25 (0.70, 2.23) | 40.0 | 1.21 (0.79, 1.85) | 1.49 (0.90, 2.48) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 23.1 | 0.74 (0.49, 1.12)* | 0.96 (0.63, 1.47) | 33.8 | 0.93 (0.56, 1.54) | 0.99 (0.56, 1.76) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 50.9 | 1.88 (1.24, 2.86) | 1.81 (1.10, 2.96) |
| STI | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 4.3 | Ref | Ref | 8.4 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 10.1 | 2.53 (1.47, 4.34)* | 2.75 (1.26, 6.03) | 12.2 | 1.52 (0.86, 2.69) | 1.22 (0.52, 2.85) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 6.6 | 1.59 (0.85, 2.97) | 1.15 (0.51, 2.56) | 14.4 | 1.84 (1.06, 3.19) | 0.98 (0.52, 1.85)* |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 15.1 | 1.95 (0.82, 4.67) | 2.39 (1.00, 5.71) |
| Hispanic (n = 1867) | ||||||
| Marijuana | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 26.2 | Ref | Ref | 18.1 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 56.2 | 3.61 (2.13, 6.11)* | 3.55 (1.93, 6.56) | 26.9 | 1.66 (0.87, 3.17) | 1.55 (0.78, 3.08) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 38.0 | 1.73 (1.02, 2.95) | 1.77 (0.94, 3.36) | 17.9 | 0.99 (0.34, 2.87) | 1.08 (0.35, 3.35) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 34.2 | 2.34 (1.16, 4.75) | 1.76 (0.79, 3.89) |
| Cocaine | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 3.3 | Ref | Ref | 17.0 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 10.8 | 3.57 (1.13, 11.23) | 2.89 (0.44, 18.97) | 32.2 | 2.32 (1.34, 4.00) | 2.99 (1.46, 6.13) |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 7.3 | 2.34 (0.68, 8.03) | 2.33 (0.62, 8.74) | 25.5 | 1.67 (0.91, 3.07) | 1.47 (0.81, 2.69) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 22.3 | 1.41 (0.64, 3.11) | 1.48 (0.57, 3.85) |
| Multiple Partners | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 15.5 | Ref | Ref | 24.4 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 26.5 | 1.96 (1.05, 3.68) | 2.14 (0.97, 4.73) | 40.9 | 2.14 (1.17, 3.92) | 2.50 (1.24, 5.05)* |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 30.2 | 2.36 (1.30, 4.28) | 2.32 (1.03, 5.22) | 14.9 | 0.54 (0.24, 1.21) | 0.46 (0.18, 1.19) |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 19.6 | 0.75 (0.29, 1.97) | 0.56 (0.19, 1.66)* |
| STI | ||||||
| No Incarcerated Parent | 1.5 | Ref | Ref | 2.3 | Ref | Ref |
| Parent Incarcerated < 8YO | 0.0 | N/A | Unable to converge | 10.6 | 5.10 (1.81, 14.33)* | 5.85 (1.81, 18.88)* |
| Parent Incarcerated 8–17 YO | 2.2 | 1.42 (0.21, 9.68) | 1.24 (0.18, 8.85)* | 10.5 | 5.05 (1.71, 14.89) | 7.01 (2.10, 23.40)* |
| Parent Incarcerated 18+YO | – | – | – | 2.8 | 1.23 (0.21, 7.23) | 1.68 (0.23, 12.34) |
*
Parental incarceration by race interaction term p value < 0.15; suggests association between parental incarceration and outcome differs significantly from whites (referent population).
a
During adolescence, marijuana, cocaine, multiple partnerships, and STI are any reported history; during adulthood, marijuana, multiple partnerships and STI are during the past 12 months, and cocaine are any reported history.
b
Adjusted for age, gender, poverty in adolescence, parental binge drinking in adolescence, and witnessed violence in adolescence; analyses in the total sample additionally adjusted for race.
c
Adjusted for age race, gender, poverty in adolescence and young adulthood, parental binge drinking in adolescence, and witnessed violence in adolescence, and adulthood educational attainment; analyses in the total sample additionally adjusted for race.