Table 1.
Prevalence of PTSD/probable PTSD in highly exposed populations by Time Post-9/11
| Source | Sample population | Sampling method and type | PTSD instrument | Average time frame post-9/11 and population at each time point (n) | Estimated prevalence of PTSD/probable PTSD (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adams & Boscarino (2006) | NYC residents | Random, CATI | NWS | 1 year (2323) | 4.7 |
| 2 years (1681) | 3.8 | ||||
| Berninger et al. (2010a) | Firefighters | Systematic, IPQ | PCL (DSM–IV criteria and non-weighted cut-off score nine out of 14 possible items) | 1 year (8679) | 9.8 |
| 2 years (1161) | 9.9 | ||||
| 3 years (2820) | 11.7 | ||||
| 4 years (4166) | 10.6 | ||||
| Berninger et al. (2010b) | Firefighters | Systematic, IPQ | PCL (DSM–IV criteria and non-weighted cut-off score of nine out of 14 possible items) | 0–6 months (5656) | 8.6 |
| 3–4 years (5656) | 11.1 | ||||
| Bowler et al. (2012) | Police responders | Convenience, CATI, FTFI | PCL (DSM-IV criteria) | 2–3 years (2940) | 7.8 |
| 5–6 years (2940) | 16.5 | ||||
| Brackbill et al. (2009) | RR, LMR, LMO, PB | Mixed, CATI | PCL (cut-off score 44) | 2–3 years (40 032) | 14.3 |
| R/R (20 294) | 12.1 | ||||
| LMR (5852) | 13.2 | ||||
| LMO (14 718) | 16.9 | ||||
| PB (2087) | 19.3 | ||||
| 5–6 years (40 032) | 19.1 | ||||
| R/R (20 294) | 19.5 | ||||
| LMR (5852) | 16.3 | ||||
| LMO (14 718) | 19.1 | ||||
| PB (2087) | 23.2 | ||||
| Cone et al. (2015) | Police responders | Convenience, FTFI | PCL (cut-off score 44) | 2–3 years (2204) | 13.6 |
| 5–8 years (2204) | 11.9 | ||||
| 10–11 years (2204) | 11.0 | ||||
| Cukor et al. (2011) | Utility workers | Convenience, FTFI, IPQ | CAPS and PCL (DSM-IV criteria) | 1–2 years (2960) | 9.5a |
| 3–4 years (2626) | 4.8 | ||||
| 6–7 years (1983) | 2.4 | ||||
| Debchoudhury et al. (2011) | Affiliated and lay volunteer disaster workers | Convenience, CATI, CAPI | PCL (cut-off score 44) | 3–4 years (4974) | 10.8 |
| Affiliated (3702) | 7.5 | ||||
| Lay (1272) | 20.2 | ||||
| 5–6 years (4974) | 15.9 | ||||
| Affiliated (3702) | 11.2 | ||||
| Lay (1272) | 29.6 | ||||
| Neria et al. (2010) | Primary care patients | Systematic, IPQ | PCL (cut-off score 44) | 1 year (455) | 9.6 |
| 4 years (455) | 4.1 | ||||
| Pfeffer et al. (2007) | BC, NBC | Convenience, FTFI – child and parent | K-SADS | 4 months to 2.6 years (79)b | 17 |
| BC (45) | 29.6 | ||||
| NBC (34) | 2.9 | ||||
| Timepoint 2 (79) | ~ 4 | ||||
| BC (45) | ~ 5 | ||||
| NBC (34) | <3 | ||||
| Pietrzak et al. (2014) | PR, NR | Convenience, IPQ | PCL (cut-off score 44) | 1–5 years (10 835) | 18.3 |
| PR (4035) | 8.5 | ||||
| NR (6800) | 24.1 | ||||
| 4–7 years (10 835) | 18.7 | ||||
| PR (4035) | 9.3 | ||||
| NR (6800) | 24.2 | ||||
| 6–9 years (10 835) | 17.8 | ||||
| PR (4035) | 9.8 | ||||
| NR (6800) | 22.5 | ||||
| Silver et al. (2005a) | US residents: DE, LME, NLE | Random, OQ | At 2 weeks, ASD assessed with SASRQ (DSM–IV criteria); at 1 year, PCL (DSM–IV criteria) | 2 weeks (1906) | 11.9 |
| DE (57) | 9.3 | ||||
| LME (1225) | 12.8 | ||||
| NLE (624) | 10.4 | ||||
| 1 year (1906) | 4.5 | ||||
| DE (57) | 11.2 | ||||
| LME (1225) | 4.7 | ||||
| NLE (624) | 3.4 | ||||
| Zvolensky et al. (2015) | Rescue and recovery workers: PR, NR | Convenience, IPQ | PCL | 1–9 years (18 896)c | 14.3 |
| PR (8466) | 11.7 | ||||
| NR (10 430) | 16.4 | ||||
| 3.5–11.5 years (18 896) | 15.3 | ||||
| PR (8466) | 13 | ||||
| NR (10 430) | 17.2 |
ASD, acute stress disorder; BC, bereaved children; CAPI, computer-assisted in-person personal interviewing; CAPS, Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale; CATI, computer-assisted telephone interview; DE, direct exposure; DSM-IV, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition; FTFI, face-to-face interview; IPQ, in-person questionnaire; K-SADS, Child Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia; LME, live media exposure; LMO, lower Manhattan office workers; LMR, lower Manhattan residents; NBC, non-bereaved children; NLE, no live exposure; NR, non-traditional responders; NYC, New York City; OQ, online questionnaire; PB, passersby; PCL, PTSD Checklist; PR, police responders; PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder; RR, rescue/recovery workers; SASRQ, Stanford Acute Stress Reaction Questionnaire
CAPS was administered only to a ‘high-risk’ subset of the total sample at the second (n = 2556) and third (n = 770) time points due to cost constraints. CAPS scores for the three time points were 14.9%, 8.4%, and 5.8%, respectively.
Initial time point varied. Participants were reassessed every 6 months.
Initial time point varied. Participants were reassessed after an average of 2.5 years.