Table 3.

Treatment of PTSD in highly exposed 9/11 populations

Source and study design	Sample	Time frame of data collection post-9/11	PTSD instrument	Treatment conditions	Outcomes	Average reduction in scoresa
CATS Consortium (2010) (quasi-experimental)	NYC youths aged 5–21 (n = 306)	1–4 years	PTSD-RI (trauma-specific CBT >25, brief CBT skills <25)	Trauma-specific CBT, brief CBT skills training (assignment depending on symptom severity)	Both groups showed improvement	Trauma-specific CBT: 14.88 CBT skills training: 7.93
Costantino et al. (2014) (quasi-experimental)	Hispanic/Latino NYC public schoolchildren (n = 131)	2–4 years	PTSD-RI (cut-off score 25)	TF-CBT v. TEMAS-NTT	TF-CBT and TEMAS-NTT effective in reducing PTSD, depression, and anxiety. TEMAS-NTT possibly better for younger children	TF-CBT: 15.82 TEMAS-NTT: 19.89
Difede et al. (2006) (experimental)	NYC residents (n = 17)	Not reported	CAPS	Virtual reality v. waitlist control	VR is effective, may be especially effective for those who did not succeed with imaginal exposure	VR = 1.53 (reported effect size) Waitlist = N.S.
Difede et al. (2007) (experimental)	Disaster relief workers (n = 31)	7 months to 3 years	CAPS (cut-off score 30), PCL	Exposure-based CBT v. TAU	CBT effective in reducing symptoms; drop-out rate relatively high	CBT = 24.86 (CAPS), 14.28 (PCL) TAU = 2.43 (CAPS), 5.38 (PCL)
Levitt et al. (2007) (quasi-experimental)	NYC residents with direct or indirect exposure (n = 59)	1 year	MPSS-SR	CBT (STAIR/MPE)	Significant reduction of PTSD and depression, improved functioning	36
Schneier et al. (2012) (experimental)	NYC residents (n = 37)	3–8 years	CAPS (cut-off score 50), PCL	PE + SSRI v. PE + placebo	Combined treatment more efficacious	PE + SSRI: 42.2 PE + placebo: 37.5
Silver et al. (2005b) (quasi-experimental)	NYC residents with direct or indirect exposure (n = 65)	2–48 weeks	IES-R (cut-off score 45)	EMDR (early: 2–10 weeks post-9/11; late: 30–48 weeks post-9/11)	Significant reduction in anxiety, depression, and PTSD symptoms	22.8

CAPS, Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale; CBT, cognitive–behavioral therapy; EMDR, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy; IES-R, Impact of Event Scale; MPSS-SR, Modified PTSD Symptom Scale Self-Report; N.S., non-significant; NYC, New York City; PCL, PTSD Checklist; PE, prolonged exposure; PTSD, post-traumatic stress disorder; PTSD-RI, PTSD Reaction Index; STAIR/MPE, Skills Training in Affective and Interpersonal Regulation/Modified Prolonged Exposure; TAU, treatment as usual; TEMAS-NTT, Tell-Me-A-Story Narrative Trauma Therapy; TF-CBT, trauma-focused CBT; VR, virtual reality.

^aAll reported scores represented a significant difference (p < 0.05) unless otherwise specified.