Table 1.

Challenges in cancer immunotherapy for dogs.

Costs for clinical trials Profit margin for drug/biotech companies limited – less incentive of investing in clinical trials Randomized trials are challenging: Breed variability Heterogeneous tumor biology Rigor in disease staging Outcome measurements require close follow-up Immunotherapy can cause initial tumor enlargement – leading to early discontinuation At progression, owners often prefer euthanasia Owners may consider treatment interventions palliative, often resulting in reduced drug dosing Limited knowledge about canine immune system (lack of reagents or biological markers) Non-invasive detection and predictive response tests lacking (example “liquid biopsy”) Genome guided treatment design still at an early stage of development