Table 4.
Critical analysis of the quantitative measures/assessments of physical literacy and its related constructs
| Measures/assessments (no. of papers) | Definition(s) of physical literacy | Age group (children U12, adolescents, adults) | Environment (PE, community, other) | Philosophy alignment | Outcome measures assessed (physical literacy domain/related construct) | Strengths of measure/assessment in relation to physical literacy and related constructs | Limitations of measure/assessment in relation to physical literacy and related constructs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pedometer (4) | No definition [41, 93] Whiteheadian definition [42] Developing physical skills [85] |
Children U12 and adolescents | PE and community | No philosophy [41, 42, 85, 93] | Physical activity (related construct of physical literacy) | Accurate, cost effective, and easy to use | Omit the intensity and type of physical activity undertaken |
| Accelerometer (2) | Developing physical skills [85] No definition [93] |
Children U12 and adolescents | Community and PE | No philosophy [85, 93] | Physical activity (related construct of physical literacy) | Details of the intensity and type of physical activity undertaken | Expensive equipment and does not account for water-based activities |
| International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) (2) | Developing physical skills [85] No definition [93] |
Children U12 | Community and PE | No philosophy [85, 93] | Physical activity (related construct of physical literacy) | Validated questionnaire to gauge physical activity levels | Long and short versions of IPAQ, no detail of the appropriateness of both versions |
| Nutrition and Physical Activity Self-Assessment of Child Care (NCAP SACC) (1) | Developing physical skills [85] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [85] | Physical activity (related construct of physical literacy) | The NCAP SACC is completed by two research assistants, which allows consistency with reporting the data | The 55-item questionnaire takes a long time to complete, which may reduce the reliability of the data Two research assistants is unrealistic in a school /club setting |
| Perceptions of Physical Activity Importance and their Children’s Ability Questionnaire (1) | Developing physical skills [85] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [85] | Physical activity (related construct of physical literacy) | Obtaining parental views on their child’s physical activity ability increases the reliability as the sample of children were aged 3–5 years | Reliant on significant others commenting on children’s physical activity level |
| Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (1) | No definition [87] | Adolescents | PE | No philosophy [87] | Physical activity (related construct of physical literacy) | Use of recall cues such as play time, PE lessons, after school to prompt children’s recall | Cognitive recall abilities in self-report measures are unreliable |
| System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (1) | No definition [88] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [88] | Physical activity (related construct of physical literacy) | Validated test that is easy to administer and cost effective | Does not capture quality movement, numeric data collected on time spent on moderate-to-active physical activity |
| Exergaming (2) | Whiteheadian definition [77] PHE Canada definition [12] |
Children U12 and adults | PE and community | Reference to holistic philosophy [12] No philosophy [77] |
FMS (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | A viable option for gauging individual physical progress for the future technological generation Reading the environment Alignment with the unique physical literacy journey |
Physically competent individuals should interact with a variety of physical environments to develop simple, combined, and complex movement capacities, which could be limited while exergaming |
| FMS-Polygon (1) | No definition [91] | Children U12 | Other | No philosophy [91] | FMS (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Allows learners to perform tasks in an applied environment Different aspects of FMS measured/assessed through an obstacle course Cost and time effective and can be effectively administrated in a school or sports club setting |
Outcome was measured quantitatively for each task with a time Omits consideration for quality of movement |
| Henderson and Sugden’s Movement Assessment Battery for Children (1) | Northern Ireland definition [89] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [89] | Limb positioning, balance and fluency of movement (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Ability to evaluate motor development, develop motor training program, and assists in diagnosing motor impairment | Time consuming to administer Does not allow children to display their applied physical competence as skills are completed in isolation |
| The Canadian Agility and Movement Skills Assessment (1) | Whiteheadian and PHE Canada definition [42] | Children U12 | PE | No philosophy [42] | Physical competence (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Combines both quality and quantity indictors to measure/assess physical competence Applies Whitehead’s theoretical constructs of physical competence |
Lack of detail of the procedures, inability to determine whether the assessment is used in an applied or isolated manner |
| Postural tests (2) | Whiteheadian definition [92] PHE Canada definition [12] |
Children U12 and adults | PE and other | Reference to holistic philosophy [12] No philosophy [92] |
Stability/ balance (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Use of rigorous and validated methods to collect data | Expensive equipment, which poses problems with accessibility Requires scholarly expertise to analyze data |
| Test of gross motor development (1) | Developing physical skills [85] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [85] | Physical literacy (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Validated and standardized test designed to assess the gross motor functioning (locomotor and object control skills) of children aged 3–10 years Could be used as part of a larger assessment program |
Does not allow children to display their applied physical competence as skills are completed in isolation |
| Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (1) | Northern Ireland definition [89] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [89] | Limb positioning, balance and fluency of movement (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Ability to evaluate motor development, develop motor training program, and assists in diagnosing motor impairment | Time consuming to administer Does not allow children to display their applied physical competence as skills are completed in isolation |
| Straight sprint test (1) | Developing physical skills [90] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [90] | Motor performance (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Time effective Could be used as part of a larger assessment program |
Measures speed only |
| Vertical jump test (1) | Developing physical skills [90] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [90] | Motor performance (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Time effective Could be used as part of a larger assessment program |
Measures explosive power only |
| Agility test (2) | Developing physical skills [90] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [90] | Motor performance (part of the physical domain of physical literacy) | Time effective Could be used as part of a larger assessment program |
Measures agility only |
| 20-m multi-stage fitness test (1) | Whiteheadian definition [73] | Children U12 | PE | No philosophy [73] | Cardiovascular endurance (related construct of physical literacy—health and fitness) | Validated test that is easy to administer and cost effective | It is often administered in a comparative way as opposed to focusing on personal best, which contradicts the concept of physical literacy |
| Anthropometric measures (2) | No definition [41] Developing physical skills [90] |
Children U12 | Community and other | No philosophy [41, 90] | Height, weight, BMI, waist circumference (related construct of physical literacy—health and fitness) | Validated test that is easy to administer and cost effective | May impact on one’s self-esteem |
| Non-validated affective questionnaire (1) | Whiteheadian definition [71] | Children U12 | PE | No philosophy [71] | Perceived competence in PE (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Allows teachers to identify useful information regarding pupils’ attitudes and opinions toward PE and physical activity | Cognitive recall abilities in self-report measures can be unreliable Non-validated and therefore unreliable |
| Brustad’s Children’s Attraction to Physical Activity Scale (1) | Northern Ireland definition [89] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [89] | Self-perceptions and attitudes towards physical activity and sport (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Gauges children’s attitudes toward physical activity, which may assist in planning physical literacy interventions | Lack of an explicit connection with motivation and confidence |
| Children’s Physical Activity Self-Efficacy Scale (1) | No definition [87] | Adolescents | PE | No philosophy [87] | Self-efficacy (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Provides an understanding of a child’s self-efficacy, linking to the confidence element of physical literacy | Self-efficacy is only one part of the affective domain of physical literacy |
| Children’s Self-Perception of Adequacy in and Predilection for Physical Activity Scale (1) | Whiteheadian and PHE Canada definition [42] | Children U12 | PE | No philosophy [42] | Perceived competence (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Assesses a child’s desire to participate in physical activities, enjoyment, and perceived physical competence, which is vital to gauge confidence and motivation Assessing children’s self-perceptions may assist with planning physical literacy interventions |
Cognitive recall abilities in self-report measures are unreliable |
| Global Physical Self-Worth subscale of the Child and Youth Physical Self-Perception Profile (1) | No definition [87] | Adolescents | PE | No philosophy [87] | Self-esteem (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) |
Assessing children’s self-worth may assist with planning physical literacy and well-being interventions | Lack of an explicit connection with motivation and confidence |
| Performance diary (1) | Whiteheadian definition [74] | Children U12 | PE | Reference to holistic philosophy [74] | Physical competence, self-rated effort and improvement (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Child-centered approach to assessing perceived physical competence | Written quality is dependent on children’s academic ability as to the amount of detail captured |
| Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children (1) | Northern Ireland definition [89] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [89] | Self-perceptions and attitudes towards physical activity and sport (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Provides an understanding of a child’s self-esteem, linking to the confidence element of physical literacy | Lack of an explicit connection with motivation and confidence |
| Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) (1) | Whiteheadian definition [74] | Children U12 | PE | Reference to holistic philosophy [74] | Motivation, enjoyment, perceived competence and effort (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Full IMI is validated for adults and is widely accepted to assess individual’s intrinsic motivation Adapted IMI content was appropriate for children |
Children’s recall abilities in self-report measures are unreliable The adapted IMI for children is not completely validated |
| Physical Ability subscale of the Self-Description Questionnaire (1) | No definition [87] | Adolescents | PE | No philosophy [87] | Perceived competence (part of the affective domain of physical literacy) | Physical self-worth affects global self-efficacy, and self-esteem indivisibly connects with motivation | Children’s recall abilities in self-report measures are unreliable |
| Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (1) | Developing physical skills [90] | Children U12 | Community | No philosophy [90] | Creative thinking (part of the cognitive domain of physical literacy) | Validated and reliable instrument Creativity in interacting with the physical environment integral to the concept of physical literacy |
Does not evaluate pupils’ general knowledge and understanding of healthy and active lifestyles |
| Mock exam paper (1) | No definition [86] | Adolescents | PE | No philosophy [86] | A level pupils’ PE knowledge (part of the cognitive domain of physical literacy) | Aimed to improve pupils’ knowledge and understanding of the PE curriculum content | Does not evaluate pupils’ general knowledge and understanding of healthy and active lifestyles |
| Understanding physical literacy questionnaire (1) | Whiteheadian definition [79] | Adults | Other | Reference to holistic philosophy [79] | Measure Perceived Physical Literacy Instrument for physical education teachers (part of the cognitive domain of physical literacy) | Questionnaire has undergone a rigorous process to validate the questionnaire by a panel of experts in the areas of sport science, physical education, and health education | Not all 18 items on the instrument were applicable to understanding physical literacy |
| Non-validated cognitive questionnaire (1) | Whiteheadian definition [75] | Children U12, adolescents and adults | PE | No philosophy [75] | PE teachers’ and pupils’ understanding of physical literacy (part of the cognitive domain of physical literacy) | Identifies teachers’ and pupils’ understanding of physical literacy | Cognitive recall abilities in self-report measures are unreliable Non-validated instrument |
| Optional creative writing assignments (1) | Whiteheadian and PHE Canada definition [80] | Children U12 and adults | Other | Holistic philosophy [80] | Creative assignments of their physical experiences (part of the cognitive domain of physical literacy) | Creative writing assignments allowed researchers to familiarize with students’ perspective, knowledge and understanding | Process of analyzing the creative writing assignments is time consuming Dependent on academic writing ability |
| Canadian Assessment for Physical Literacy (CAPL) (2) | Whiteheadian definition [42, 79] | Children U12 and adults | PE and other | No philosophy [42, 79] | Physical literacy (physical, affective and cognitive domains of physical literacy and related construct of physical literacy) | The first pragmatic measure that attempts to capture all domains of physical literacy in a measurement/assessment tool Recommendations of the CAPL were made by an international expert panel |
The weighting prioritizes the physical domain Normative data as opposed to focusing on personal best |
BMI body mass index, FMS fundamental movement skills, IMI Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, PE physical education, PHE physical and health education, U12 under 12 years of age