Table 1.
Outcomes and control strategies of all national schistosomiasis control programs during the past century.a
| Country/ territory name |
Control outcome |
Successful prevalence reduction (%) |
Successful population- at-risk reduction (%) |
Molluscicides | Snail habitat reduction |
Snail biological control |
Human tx by MDA | Other controls | Details on other control measures | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iran | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | • | • | land reclamation, draining swamps, providing latrines | [100, 101] | |
| Japan | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | • | human test and tx; cementing irrigation canals | [1, 2, 102, 103] | ||
| Jordan | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | low coverage; human test and tx | http://www.who.int/schistosomiasis/resources/EMRO_report_Schistosomiasis.pdf | |||
| Lebanon | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | • | cementing irrigation canals; improved water and sanitation | [101] | ||
| Martinique | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | improved water and sanitation | [104] | |||
| Mauritius | E | 100 | 100 | • | some enigmatic snail declines | [105] | ||||
| Morocco | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | • | mobile envoys to support human test and tx | [21, 106–112] | ||
| Puerto Rico | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | • | human test and tx; improved water; health education | [113] | ||
| Tunisia | E | 100 | 100 | • | • | human test and tx | [114] | |||
| Saudi Arabia | N | 99.8 | ND | • | • | • | • | little MDA; land reclamation, cementing canals | [23, 115–120] | |
| Indonesia | N | 99.5 | ND | • | • | • | little MDA; agro-engineering; sanitation improvement | [121] | ||
| Iraq | N | 99.5 | ND | • | • | targeted tx of schoolchildren in early years | [120, 122] | |||
| Egypt | N | 99 | ND | • | • | • | • | safe water supply and agricultural drainage projects | [101, 120, 123–128] http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/756051468036566715/pdf/444660PPAR0P0051520Box327410B01PUBLIC1.pdf | |
| China | N | 98.9 | 79 | • | • | • | • | tx of cattle and buffalo; agricultural engineering and safe water | [129, 130] | |
| Venezuela | N | 98.6 | ND | • | • | • | human test and tx; invasive competitor snails | [22, 131–133] | ||
| Philippines | N | 98.3 | ND | • | • | • | • | shift from early focus on snails and targeted tx to later MDA | [134, 135] | |
| St. Lucia | N | 98.2 | 84.3 | • | • | • | • | site of early Rockefeller studies on. control of schistosomes | [136] | |
| Guadeloupe | N | 96 | ND | • | • | • | • | bridges; canal engineering to reduce snail habitat | [133, 137] | |
| Zanzibar | N | 84.7 | ND | • | • | • | • | recent initiation of elimination program | [138–140] | |
| Laos | N | 84.6 | ND | • | • | limited health education and improved sanitation | [141–143] | |||
| Cambodia | N | 83 | 90 | • | • | limited health education and improved sanitation | [141, 144] | |||
| Brazil | N | 80 | 69 | • | • | • | early human test and tx; improved water and sanitation | [145–148] | ||
| Burundi | N | 74.4 | ND | • | • | • | focal mollusciciding and sanitation were implemented rarely | [149–151] | ||
| Ghana | N | 73.9 | ND | • | low coverage | [152] | ||||
| Madagascar | N | 73.8 | ND | • | • | • | molluscicides used rarely; improved water and sanitation | [153, 154] http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/preventive_chemotherapy/PCTNewsletter12_En.pdf?ua=1, http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/isp_collection/1675/, http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/whozip48e/whozip48e.pdf | ||
| Rwanda | N | 69.5 | ND | • | • | mapping and training health personnel | [155] | |||
| Libya | N | 66.7 | ND | • | • | • | human test and tx | http://www.who.int/schistosomiasis/resources/EMRO_report_Schistosomiasis.pdf | ||
| Surinam | N | 61.5 | 69.3 | • | • | • | human test and tx; education | [156, 157] http://www.who.int/schistosomiasis/resources/PAHO_report_Schistosomiasis_carribean.pdf | ||
| Burkina Faso | N | 61.2 | ND | • | [29, 158, 159] | |||||
| Tanzania | N | 60 | 0 | • | • | • | limited mollusciciding and human test and tx | [160, 161] | ||
| Uganda | N | 55.4 | ND | • | [162, 163] | |||||
| Mali | N | 51.8 | ND | • | [41, 164] | |||||
| Sierra Leone | N | 51.4 | ND | • | [165, 166] | |||||
| Kenya | N | 51 | ND | • | • | limited biological control in early years with Louisiana Crayfish | [74, 167] | |||
| Niger | N | 44 | ND | • | [168–171] | |||||
| Yemen | N | 44 | ND | • | [172] | |||||
| Malawi | N | 43.3 | ND | • | • | • | • | limited experimental mollusciciding and biological control | [173–176] | |
| Congo | N | 41.7 | ND | • | • | • | limited mollusciciding, education and health training | http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/whozip48e/whozip48e.pdf | ||
| Togo | N | 30.9 | ND | • | [162, 177] | |||||
| Mozambique | N | 28.9 | ND | • | http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/schisto/wherewework/mozambique/mozambiquestrategy | |||||
| Zambia | N | 26.6 | ND | • | [178, 179] | |||||
| Cameroon | N | 16.7 | ND | • | [180] | |||||
| Swaziland | N | 9.6 | ND | • | [181] | |||||
| Senegal | N | 1 | ND | • | • | limited trials for biological control with river prawns | [9, 182] http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/65978/1/WHO_CDS_CPC_SIP_99.2.pdf | |||
| Oman | N | 0.6 | ND | • | • | low coverage of control; human test and tx; concrete reservoirs | http://www.who.int/schistosomiasis/resources/EMRO_report_Schistosomiasis.pdf | |||
| Benin | N | −2 | ND | • | • | improved water and sanitation (incidental to development) | http://www.evaluategroup.com/Universal/View.aspx?type=Story&id=153562 | |||
| Somalia | N | −24 | NA | • | low coverage of control | http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/preventive_chemotherapy/databank/en/. | ||||
| Sudan | N | −29.7 | 47 | • | low coverage of control | [183–187] | ||||
| Central AfricanRepublic | N | −58 | ND | • | low coverage of control | http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/69740/1/WHO_CDS_NTD_2007.4_eng.pdf | ||||
| DominicanRepublic | N | ND | ND | • | • | lacking quantitative data on success | [13, 157, 188] | |||
| Syria | N | ND | ND | • | early human test and tx; cementing canals; conflict hinders effort | http://www.who.int/schistosomiasis/resources/EMRO_report_Schistosomiasis.pdf |
a
The most successful programs have focused on widespread and early snail control activities. Countries and territories are ordered by most to least successful in terms of reducing schistosomiasis prevalence. More details and data are available at [3], http://schisto.stanford.edu and https://purl.stanford.edu/yt060bn1019. “E” = schistosomiasis eliminated from the country/territory, “N” = schistosomiasis is not yet eliminated, “ND” = no data, “tx” = treatment campaigns.