Rapamycin was given in drinking water (2.5 mg/ml) and by oral gavage (2.5 or 5 mg/kg every other day) concomitantly with tamoxifen for 3 months. (A) Representative H&E-stained lung sections showing emphysema lesions in PDGF-TSC1–/– mice treated with rapamycin or vehicle, compared with control transgenic mice not treated with tamoxifen. Scale bar: 200 μm. (B) Mean linear intercept of alveolar septa and air space. (C) Representative lung sections showing pulmonary vessel remodeling. Scale bar: 50 μm. (D) RVSP, RV/(LV/S), and pulmonary-vessel muscularization. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001 vs. vehicle-treated PDGF-TSC1–/– mice, by 1-way ANOVA.