Table 1.
Summary of the key studies exploring EndMT under specific inflammatory stimuli and metabolic dysfunction.
| Stimuli | Endothelial markers | Mesenchymal markers | Endothelial cell types | Positive regulator of EndMT | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| TNF-α | VE-cadherin | N-cadherin | LEC | ZEB1 and β-catenin | (44) |
| TNF-α | VE-cadherin, CD31, eNOS | α-SMA and MMP-9 | PAVEC and eQEE | Akt/NF-κB, Snail, Slug, TGFβ, Notch1, and BMP-4 | (39, 40) |
| IL-1β | vWF | α-SMA, collagen I, and calponin | HDMEC | Non determined | (47, 48) |
| IL-1β | Non determined | SM22α | HUVEC | pSmad2 and TGFβ2 | (49) |
| IL-1β | Non determined | Cell shape change and actin cytoskeleton | CECs | PI3K | (50, 51) |
| TNF-α, IL-1β and TGFβ1 | VE-cadherin, CD31, and vWF | α-SMA, FSP-1, vimentin, N-cadherin, and fibronectin | HIMEC | Sp1 | (31) |
| TGFβ2 and IL-1β | CD31, vWF, and VE-cadherin | SM22α, FSP-1, collagen 1 A2, vimentin, and α-SMA | HEMEC | Snail | (53) |
| TGFβ2 and IL-1β | eNOS and vWF | SM22α, calponin | HUVEC | NF-κB | (54) |
| TNF-α, IL-1β and TGFβ1 | vWF, CD31, VE-cadherin, and Occludin | Calponin, α-SMA, and collagen I | PAECs | Non determined | (7) |
| High glucose | CD31 and VE-cadherin | α-SMA, α-SMA, FSP-1, and fibronectin | GEnC | TGFβ, pSmad2/3, Snail, ROCK1, NOD1, MEK/ERK, SRF, and Snail | (57–60) |
| High glucose | CD31 and VE-cadherin | α-SMA, FSP-1, collagen I, collagen III, and MMP-2/9 | HAEC | Angiotensin II, Snail, and PARP-1 | (55, 61) |
| High glucose | VE-cadherin and CD31 | α-SMA, collagen I, FSP-1, vimentin, and MMP-2/9 | HUVEC | TGFβ1, ERK, pSmad2/3, and MAPK (p38 and ERK) | (56, 63) |
| High glucose | VE-cadherin | FSP-1 and collagen I | HUVEC and HAEC | ET-1, TGFβ1, pSmad3, pAKT, and Snail | (62) |
| ox-LDL + Radiation | VE-cadherin and CD31 | α-SMA, FSP-1, and vimentin | HAEC | Non determined | (64) |
TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; TGFβ, transforming growth factor-β; VE-cadherin, vascular endothelial cadherin; eNOS, endothelial nitric oxide synthase; vWF, von Willebrand Factor; α-SMA, α-smooth muscle actin; SM22α, smooth muscle protein 22-α; FSP-1, fibroblast-specific protein 1; LEC, lymphatic endothelial cell; PAVEC, porcine aortic valve endothelial cell; eQEE, embryonic quail endocardial explant; HDMEC, human epithelioid dermal microvascular endothelial cell; HUVEC, human umbilical vein endothelial cell; CEC, corneal endothelial cell; HIMEC, human intestinal microvascular endothelial cell; HEMEC, human esophageal microvascular endothelial cell; PAEC, pulmonary artery endothelial cell; ZEB1, zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox 1; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa B; BMP-4, bone morphogenetic protein 4; EZH2, enhancer of zeste homolog 2; FGF-2, fibroblast growth factor 2; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. GEnC, glomerular endothelial cell; ROCK1, Rho-associated kinase 1; HAEC, human aortic endothelial cell; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; PARP-1, Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1; SRF, Serum response factor; ET-1, endothelin-1; ox-LDL, oxidized low-density lipoprotein; NOD2, Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2.