. 2018 Feb 26;8:3629. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-21994-7

Table 1.

Summary of meta-analyses testing status-related differences in parasitism in male and female vertebrates. Models presented in this table represent the best-supported models based on k-fold cross validation. Variance estimates are reported as standard deviations of the random effects.

type of meta-analysis^A	sample size (analyses)	random effects included	kfoldIC	standard difference in means	95% CI lower limit	95% CI upper limit	p ^B	variance estimate (standard deviation)			total heterogeneity (I²) with credible intervals	higher in dominant or subordinate	Egger’s test	citations
type of meta-analysis^A	sample size (analyses)	random effects included	kfoldIC	standard difference in means	95% CI lower limit	95% CI upper limit	p ^B	study	species	phylogeny	total heterogeneity (I²) with credible intervals	higher in dominant or subordinate	(p-value)	citations
Male Studies
all male studies	66	study only	152.204	0.511	0.130	0.974	0.005	0.875	—	—	99.19 (98.46–99.77)	dominant	<0.001	^{24–26,33,38,43,81–100}
males in despotic hierarchies	59	study and species	140.225	0.493	0.013	1.001	0.023	0.677	0.600	—	99.40 (98.83–99.82)	dominant	<0.001	^{24–26,33,38,43,81–84,86–100}
males in egalitarian hierarchies	6	NA^C	12.112	0.170	−0.532	0.902	0.300	NA^C	NA^C	NA^C	24.06 (0.01–78.97)	neither	0.304	⁸⁵
males in polygynandrous mating systems	29	study only	79.085	0.943	0.348	1.671	0.001	0.938	—	—	78.29 (59.92–95.22)	dominant	0.002	^{24,25,38,81,82,84,85,88,90–94,96,100}
males in cooperative breeding mating systems	18	study only	29.307	0.390	−1.573	2.344	0.161	1.098	—	—	71.27 (27.28–99.97)	neither	<0.001	^26,43,89
males in polygynous mating systems	15	study only	41.34	−0.168	−1.272	1.114	0.322	1.207	—	—	94.42 (83.25–99.93)	neither	0.242	^{33,83,87,95,98–100}
males in monogamous mating systems	4	study only	2.787	0.229	−6.677	6.209	0.355	3.111	—	—	84.91 (28.92–99.99)	neither	0.496	^86,97
males exposed to environmentally- and contact-transmitted parasites	53	study only	122.344	0.704	0.238	1.276	0.002	0.960	—	—	99.44 (98.91–99.85)	dominant	<0.001	^{24–26,38,81–85,87–97,100}
males exposed to parasites transmitted by flying-vectors	6	study and species	15.507	−0.104	−4.244	3.914	0.469	2.018	2.046	—	95.29 (83.32–99.99)	neither	0.634	^33,43,86,98
Female Studies
all female studies	62	study only	114.020	0.322	−0.059	0.737	0.044	0.611	—	—	98.33 (96.56–99.68)	dominant	0.118	^{24,26,81,87,89,90,94,101–106}
females in despotic nepotistic hierarchies	44	study, species, phylogeny	92.562	0.168	−2.127	2.377	0.365	0.616	0.355	1.070	92.16 (78.68–99.88)	neither	0.050	^{24,81,87,88,90,92,94,97,101–105}
females in despotic age-based hierarchies	18	study	23.405	0.324	−2.549	3.371	0.309	—	—	—	90.16 (66.83–99.99)	neither	0.170	^26,89,106
females in polygynandrous mating systems	29	study and species	62.579	0.457	−0.571	1.447	0.121	0.755	0.585	—	74.52 (46.91–98.92)	neither	0.199	^{24,81,90,94,102–105}
females in cooperative breeding mating systems	17	study	19.646	0.547	−5.953	6.788	0.286	3.460	—	—	92.40 (67.09–99.99)	neither	0.044	^26,89
females in polygynous mating systems	16	study	32.001	−0.266	−1.488	0.882	0.166	0.646	—	—	74.78 (34.55–99.99)	neither	0.040	^87,101,106
females exposed to environmentally- and contact-transmitted parasites	61	study	108.234	0.371	−0.006	0.808	0.027	0.605	—	—	98.30 (96.41–99.67)	dominant	0.120	^{24,26,81,87,89,90,94,101–105}

^AIn all of the above models, study setting (wild non-provisioned, wild provisioned, captive) did not significantly improve model fit and was removed from all final models. ^BThe p-values generated by the brms package³⁶ are 1-tailed, while the credible intervals are 2-tailed ^CNA = not applicable (All effect sizes for egalitarian hierarchies were from the same study and species).