Table 3.
Association of timing of dietary exposures with the risk of IA (any IA, IAA, or GADA)
| Dietary exposure | IA | Duration of breastfeeding or age at introduction of food (months) |
HR (95% CI)* | P value* | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Among those who developed autoantibodies |
Among those who did not develop autoantibodies |
||||||||
| N | Not breastfed or food was not introduced by the end of follow-up (%) | Mean (SD) | N | Not breastfed or food was not introduced by the end of follow-up (%) | Mean (SD) | ||||
| Exclusive breastfeeding | Any IA | 703 | 0 | 1.3 (1.9) | 6,860 | 0 | 1.2 (1.8) | 1.00 (0.96, 1.04) | 0.980 |
| IAA | 272 | 1.4 (1.9) | 7,291 | 1.2 (1.8) | 1.01 (0.95, 1.07) | 0.763 | |||
| GADA | 299 | 1.3 (1.9) | 7,264 | 1.2 (1.8) | 1.01 (0.95, 1.07) | 0.810 | |||
| Any breastfeeding | Any IA | 694 | 1.3 | 8.4 (7.3) | 6,617 | 3.5 | 7.4 (6.4) | 1.01 (1.00, 1.02) | 0.118 |
| IAA | 270 | 8.5 (6.7) | 7,041 | 7.5 (6.5) | 1.01 (0.99, 1.03) | 0.205 | |||
| GADA | 294 | 8.6 (8.2) | 7,017 | 7.4 (6.5) | 1.01 (1.00, 1.03) | 0.123 | |||
| Any infant formula | Any IA | 598 | 14.9 | 1.2 (2.5) | 6,006 | 12.4 | 1.2 (2.3) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.02) | 0.522 |
| IAA | 235 | 1.4 (2.7) | 6,369 | 1.2 (2.3) | 1.02 (0.96, 1.05) | 0.574 | |||
| GADA | 257 | 1.3 (2.5) | 6,347 | 1.2 (2.3) | 1.01 (0.96, 1.06) | 0.696 | |||
| Cow’s milk | Any IA | 701 | 0.3 | 2.1 (3.1) | 6,824 | 0.5 | 1.8 (2.8) | 1.01 (0.98, 1.04) | 0.474 |
| IAA | 270 | 2.2 (3.2) | 7,255 | 1.8 (2.8) | 1.02 (0.98, 1.07) | 0.301 | |||
| GADA | 299 | 2.0 (3.0) | 7,226 | 1.9 (2.8) | 1.01 (0.97, 1.05) | 0.613 | |||
| Any solid food | Any IA | 701 | 0.3 | 3.6 (1.4) | 6,839 | 0.3 | 3.5 (1.4) | 1.03 (0.97, 1.09) | 0.384 |
| IAA | 272 | 3.5 (1.4) | 7,268 | 3.5 (1.4) | 0.99 (0.90, 1.08) | 0.757 | |||
| GADA | 297 | 3.7 (1.3) | 7,243 | 3.5 (1.4) | 1.07 (0.97, 1.17) | 0.159 | |||
| Selected foods | Any IA | 701 | 0.3 | 3.7 (1.3) | 6,838 | 0.3 | 3.6 (1.4) | 1.03 (0.97, 1.09) | 0.368 |
| IAA | 272 | 3.6 (1.3) | 7,267 | 3.6 (1.4) | 1.01 (0.91, 1.11) | 0.873 | |||
| GADA | 297 | 3.7 (1.3) | 7,242 | 3.6 (1.4) | 1.00 (1.00, 1.01) | 0.118 | |||
| Cereals, any | Any IA | 699 | 0.6 | 4.4 (1.4) | 6,810 | 0.7 | 4.2 (1.4) | 1.03 (0.97, 1.10) | 0.330 |
| IAA | 271 | 4.4 (1.4) | 7,238 | 4.2 (1.4) | 1.01 (0.91, 1.14) | 0.789 | |||
| GADA | 296 | 4.3 (1.3) | 7,213 | 4.2 (1.4) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.14) | 0.525 | |||
| Gluten-containing cereals | Any IA | 699 | 0.6 | 5.8 (2.1) | 6,708 | 2.2 | 5.7 (2.0) | 1.05 (1.01, 1.10) | 0.023 |
| IAA | 271 | 5.9 (2.1) | 7,136 | 5.7 (2.0) | 1.08 (1.00, 1.16) | 0.038 | |||
| GADA | 296 | 5.8 (2.0) | 7,111 | 5.7 (2.0) | 1.06 (0.99, 1.13) | 0.121 | |||
| Rice | Any IA | 699 | 0.6 | 5.0 (1.9) | 6,755 | 1.5 | 4.8 (1.8) | 1.02 (0.97, 1.07) | 0.445 |
| IAA | 271 | 5.1 (2.0) | 7,183 | 4.8 (1.8) | 1.01 (0.93, 1.10) | 0.779 | |||
| GADA | 296 | 4.8 (1.7) | 7,158 | 4.8 (1.8) | 1.00 (0.93, 1.08) | 0.936 | |||
| Root vegetables | Any IA | 701 | 0.3 | 4.3 (1.2) | 6,806 | 0.8 | 4.3 (1.3) | 1.03 (0.96, 1.10) | 0.464 |
| IAA | 272 | 4.2 (1.2) | 7,235 | 4.3 (1.3) | 1.00 (0.90, 1.12) | 0.942 | |||
| GADA | 297 | 4.4 (1.3) | 7,210 | 4.3 (1.3) | 1.05 (0.95, 1.16) | 0.352 | |||
| Potatoes | Any IA | 699 | 0.6 | 5.2 (2.2) | 6,698 | 2.4 | 5.3 (2.4) | 1.05 (1.00, 1.10) | 0.051 |
| IAA | 271 | 5.1 (2.1) | 7,126 | 5.3 (2.4) | 1.05 (0.97, 1.14) | 0.200 | |||
| GADA | 296 | 5.4 (2.4) | 7,101 | 5.3 (2.3) | 1.06 (0.99, 1.13) | 0.116 | |||
| Fruits or berries | Any IA | 700 | 0.4 | 4.3 (1.4) | 6,806 | 0.8 | 4.2 (1.5) | 1.04 (0.98, 1.10) | 0.167 |
| IAA | 272 | 4.3 (1.5) | 7,234 | 4.2 (1.5) | 1.04 (0.95, 1.14) | 0.372 | |||
| GADA | 296 | 4.4 (1.4) | 7,210 | 4.2 (1.5) | 1.05 (0.96, 1.14) | 0.315 | |||
| Meat | Any IA | 692 | 1.6 | 6.0 (1.8) | 6,676 | 2.7 | 6.1 (2.0) | 1.02 (0.97, 1.08) | 0.457 |
| IAA | 269 | 6.0 (1.7) | 7,099 | 6.1 (2.0) | 1.03 (0.94, 1.12) | 0.564 | |||
| GADA | 292 | 6.1 (2.0) | 7,076 | 6.1 (2.0) | 1.04 (0.96, 1.12) | 0.364 | |||
| Egg | Any IA | 684 | 2.7 | 8.9 (2.5) | 6,458 | 5.9 | 8.7 (2.5) | 1.02 (0.99, 1.05) | 0.288 |
| IAA | 266 | 8.9 (2.7) | 6,876 | 8.7 (2.5) | 1.00 (0.95, 1.06) | 0.878 | |||
| GADA | 290 | 8.9 (2.4) | 6,852 | 8.7 (2.5) | 1.04 (0.99, 1.09) | 0.140 | |||
| Fish or other seafood | Any IA | 662 | 5.8 | 8.6 (3.6) | 6,210 | 9.5 | 8.6 (3.6) | 1.01 (0.98, 1.04) | 0.537 |
| IAA | 256 | 8.5 (3.8) | 6,616 | 8.6 (3.6) | 0.99 (0.94, 1.05) | 0.810 | |||
| GADA | 280 | 8.7 (3.6) | 6,592 | 8.6 (3.6) | 1.03 (0.98, 1.08) | 0.258 | |||
*HR and corresponding P value were obtained from the Cox regression model adjusted for country, HLA genotype, FDR status, sex of the child, and probiotic use <28 days. HRs reflect the change in the risk with 1-month longer breastfeeding or 1-month delay in food introduction.