Table 2. Subjects’ dietary intake, laboratory data and behavioral factors by gender and frailty cluster.
| Variables | Male (n= 1,005) | p-value | Female (n = 948) | p-value | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non-frail (n = 567) | Pre-frail (n = 383) | Frail (n = 55) | Non-frail (n = 485) | Pre-frail (n = 380) | Frail (n = 83) | |||
| Daily macronutrient intakea,b | ||||||||
| Low total calorie intake | 320(52.7) | 248(62.8) | 38(68.0) | 0.032* | 135(27.7) | 116(30.2) | 13(12.5) | 0.360 |
| Low total protein intake | 111(15.1) | 100(21.6) | 17(34.2) | 0.007* | 92(17.3) | 99(22.0) | 25(30.3) | 0.071 |
| Low total carbohydrate intake | 292(49.2) | 215(54.8) | 34(59.9) | 0.295 | 231(46.5) | 176(42.8) | 42(47.6) | 0.688 |
| Low total fat intake | 120(17.2) | 102(23.2) | 17(33.0) | 0.037* | 100(17.0) | 97(21.5) | 24(30.5) | 0.124 |
| High total saturated fatty acids intakea | 394(74.5) | 249(67.7) | 38(70.5) | 0.153 | 346(74.8) | 262(73.8) | 52(68.1) | 0.714 |
| Laboratory examsa,c | ||||||||
| Vitamin D insufficiency | 63(7.9) | 61(10.6) | 7(13.7) | 0.333 | 54(9.0) | 72(15.8) | 20(17.2) | 0.016* |
| High CRP | 39(5.7) | 41(9.7) | 7(16.9) | 0.102 | 32(5.6) | 34(8.2) | 14(21.5) | 0.001* |
| Iron deficiency | 58(9.6) | 49(13.0) | 9(20.1) | 0.034* | 13(1.7) | 13(2.3) | 5(5.4) | 0.225 |
| Lifestyle and behavioral factorsa | ||||||||
| Alcohol consumption | 0.629 | 0.166 | ||||||
| Heavy drinker | 7(1.1) | 7(1.4) | 0(0) | 1(0.2) | 0(0) | 0(0) | ||
| Moderate drinker | 446(79.0) | 301(81.4) | 44(81.7) | 257(57.7) | 162(46.6) | 37(45.6) | ||
| Occasional | 111(19.5) | 74(17.0) | 11(18.3) | 227(42.1) | 216(53.0) | 46(54.4) | ||
| Milk consumption | 0.172 | 0.247 | ||||||
| Regular | 277(50.8) | 178(47.5) | 30(51.4) | 215(44.4) | 159(44.4) | 25(29.8) | ||
| Never regular | 123(18.6) | 77(20.9) | 4(5.3) | 122(25.3) | 88(23.6) | 26(25.4) | ||
| Sometimes regular | 167(30.6) | 128(31.7) | 21(43.3) | 148(30.2) | 133(32.0) | 32(44.8) | ||
| Vegetarian | 12(1.2) | 7(1.3) | 0(0) | 0.724 | 7(1.0) | 10(2.7) | 4(5.2) | 0.164 |
| Food allergies | 38(7.9) | 21(5.6) | 2(2.5) | 0.437 | 62(12.9) | 50(12.0) | 10(16.1) | 0.732 |
| Water devices use | 188(41.2) | 106(33.5) | 19(38.2) | 0.572 | 162(38.8) | 109(31.9) | 25(38.8) | 0.632 |
| Physical activity (MET minutes) | <0.001* | <0.001* | ||||||
| <600 | 213(31.0) | 183(44.0) | 47(87.4) | 238(44.0) | 255(63.5) | 65(73.8) | ||
| >=600 | 354(69.0) | 200(56.0) | 8(12.6) | 247(56.0) | 125(36.5) | 18(26.2) | ||
| Sleeping hours | 0.049* | 0.001* | ||||||
| <6 h | 170(27.8) | 144(34.2) | 26(46.1) | 135(25.7) | 150(34.7) | 34(42.5) | ||
| >=9 h | 50(8.4) | 51(13.1) | 6(11.7) | 39(8.8) | 42(11.4) | 1(0.5) | ||
| 7–8 h | 345(63.5) | 188(52.7) | 23(42.2) | 311(65.5) | 188(54.0) | 48(57.0) | ||
| Smoking | 326(54.7) | 276(72.1) | 47(86.8) | <0.001* | 164(35.2) | 114(33.2) | 32(32.9) | 0.779 |
Notes.
Summation of percentage is not equal to 100% due to missing data.
According to 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the recommended daily allowances (RDA) for nutrients are as follows: calorie intake between 2,000∼2,800 Kcal for males and 1,600∼2,200 Kcal for females; protein intake between 50∼245 gm for males and 40∼192.5 gm for females; carbohydrate intake between 225∼455 gm for males and 180∼357.5 gm for females; total fat intake between 44.4∼109 gm for males and 35.5∼85.5 gm for females; saturated fatty acids intake ≤15.6 gm for males and ≤12.3 gm for females.
Normal serum levels are defined as: serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D) ≥ 40 nmol/L; CRP between 0–1 mg/dL; iron level between 55–160 µg/dL for males and 40–155 µg/dL for females.
indicates statistical difference between groups, p < 0.05.