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. 2017 Dec 13;120(3):266–281. doi: 10.1038/s41437-017-0022-5

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© The Author(s) 2017

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. If you remix, transform, or build upon this article or a part thereof, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Direct fitness benefits facilitate invasion of CI by lowering or removing the CI invasion threshold. Behavior of the CI invasion threshold $p_{C I}^{t h r}$ in dependence of the relative fecundity of infected females, F _CI, and the transmission rate, t _CI, for F _CI < 1 (a) and F _CI > 1 (b). The CI threshold disappears if F _CI t _CI > 1. l _CI = 0.5