Table 1.
Maternal and infant characteristics according to frequency of maternal beverage consumption during pregnancy
| Frequency of maternal beverage consumption during pregnancy |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Never | < 1/wk | 1–6/wk | ≥1/d | P-valuea | |
| Artificially sweetened beverages | |||||
| Total, no. (%) | 501 (54.6) | 127 (13.8) | 205 (22.3) | 85 (9.3) | |
| Maternal characteristics, mean (SD)b | |||||
| Age at index child birth, y | 31.5 (4.5) | 31.4 (4.8) | 30.7 (4.5) | 31.5 (4.4) | 0.22 |
| Socioeconomic status, no. (%) | 0.13 | ||||
| High | 237 (47.3) | 58 (45.7) | 82 (40.0) | 38 (44.7) | |
| Middle | 143 (28.5) | 29 (22.8) | 73 (35.6) | 22 (25.9) | |
| Low | 99 (19.8) | 34 (26.8) | 44 (21.5) | 22 (25.9) | |
| Missing or unknown | 22 (4.4) | 6 (4.7) | 6 (2.9) | 3 (3.5) | |
| Pre-pregnancy body mass index, kg/m2 | 26.5 (5.4) | 28.4 (6.1) | 28.6 (5.7) | 30.5 (7.3) | < 0.001 |
| Parity ≥ 1, no. (%) | 287 (59.7) | 75 (61.5) | 119 (59.8) | 49 (59.8) | 0.99 |
| Smoke, no. (%) | 73 (14.6) | 16 (12.7) | 36 (17.6) | 23 (27.1) | 0.021 |
| Hypertensive complications, no. (%)c | 24 (5.0) | 8 (6.5) | 12 (6.2) | 5 (6.2) | 0.88 |
| Any MVPA during pregnancy, no. (%) | 120 (25.2) | 33 (27.3) | 53 (27.2) | 16 (21.3) | 0.76 |
| Total energy intake, kcal/d | 2452.9 (630.8) | 2366.0 (640.8) | 2333.0 (649.9) | 2199.4 (556.7) | < 0.001 |
| Carbohydrate, %E | 54.1 (5.9) | 54.0 (6.1) | 53.8 (6.0) | 52.6 (6.0) | 0.4 |
| Protein, %E | 15.2 (2.6) | 16.0 (2.8) | 16.1 (2.3) | 16.5 (2.1) | < 0.001 |
| Total fat, %E | 30.3 (5.9) | 29.7 (6.0) | 29.7 (6.1) | 30.5 (6.3) | 0.5 |
| Glycaemic indexd | 90.9 (85.8) | 70.3 (62.1) | 66.9 (40.4) | 57.1 (32.9) | < 0.001 |
| Glycaemic loadd | 298.9 (348.7) | 221.7 (279.4) | 200.9 (164.5) | 153.6 (116.7) | < 0.001 |
| Desserts and sweets, g/d | 37.2 (25.4) | 36.9 (41.8) | 33.9 (27.4) | 28.6 (26.9) | < 0.001 |
| Oil/butter/margarine, g/d | 29.4 (22.3) | 25.6 (18.8) | 23.9 (18.6) | 21.7 (18.6) | < 0.001 |
| Potato, g/d | 139.7 (94.3) | 144.4 (83.0) | 131.3 (84.7) | 112.1 (68.7) | 0.02 |
| Processed meat, g/d | 16.0 (12.5) | 18.4 (13.9) | 18.4 (13.1) | 18.5 (12.9) | 0.01 |
| Refined grains, g/d | 88.1 (51.3) | 79.8 (42.5) | 86.7 (49.1) | 83.9 (48.4) | 0.68 |
| Whole grains, g/d | 146.8 (88.0) | 161.0 (87.7) | 156.6 (90.7) | 167.0 (81.9) | 0.02 |
| Offspring characteristics at birth, mean (SD)b | |||||
| Male, no. (%) | 239 (47.7) | 66 (52.0) | 106 (51.7) | 47 (55.3) | 0.49 |
| Gestational age, wks | 39.5 (1.7) | 39.4 (1.7) | 39.6 (1.7) | 39.4 (1.7) | 0.69 |
| Birthweight, g | 3684.1 (568.3) | 3750.1 (595.3) | 3753.9 (653.5) | 3747.5 (680.1) | 0.33 |
| Pponderal index, kg/m3 | 25.4 (2.5) | 25.8 (2.4) | 25.7 (2.9) | 26.0 (2.7) | 0.1 |
| Sugar-sweetened beverages | |||||
| Total, no. (%) | 287 (31.3) | 197 (21.5) | 350 (38.1) | 84 (9.2) | |
| Maternal characteristics, mean (SD)b | |||||
| Age at index child birth, y | 31.9 (4.4) | 31.8 (4.7) | 30.9 (4.6) | 30.0 (4.2) | 0.002 |
| Socioeconomic status, no. (%) | 0.53 | ||||
| High | 125 (43.6) | 88 (44.7) | 167 (47.7) | 35 (41.7) | |
| Middle | 84 (29.3) | 64 (32.5) | 95 (27.1) | 24 (28.6) | |
| Low | 68 (23.7) | 36 (18.3) | 72 (20.6) | 23 (27.4) | |
| Missing or unknown | 10 (3.5) | 9 (4.6) | 16 (4.6) | 2 (2.4) | |
| Pre-pregnancy body mass index, kg/m2 | 28.4 (6.5) | 27.2 (5.4) | 27.3 (5.6) | 27.5 (5.9) | 0.23 |
| Parity ≥1, no. (%) | 180 (65.0) | 115 (60.5) | 190 (56.7) | 45 (54.9) | 0.15 |
| Smoke, no. (%) | 51 (17.8) | 29 (14.8) | 51 (14.6) | 17 (20.2) | 0.48 |
| Hypertensive complications, no. (%)c | 17 (6.2) | 13 (6.8) | 14 (4.2) | 5 (6.2) | 0.56 |
| Any MVPA during pregnancy, no. (%) | 67 (25.2) | 54 (28.7) | 85 (25.4) | 16 (20.5) | 0.56 |
| Total energy intake, kcal/d | 2218.7 (598.5) | 2393.5 (673.5) | 2470.5 (604.5) | 2638.6 (639.0) | < 0.001 |
| Carbohydrate, %E | 53.9 (6.3) | 53.5 (5.8) | 53.5 (5.7) | 56.6 (5.9) | < 0.001 |
| Protein, %E | 16.8 (2.3) | 15.9 (2.4) | 15.1 (2.4) | 13.6 (2.2) | < 0.001 |
| Total fat, %E | 29.0 (6.4) | 30.2 (5.6) | 31.0 (5.8) | 29.5 (5.6) | < 0.001 |
| Glycaemic indexd | 65.5 (48.6) | 68.8 (48.9) | 74.1 (46.5) | 175.4 (154.5) | < 0.001 |
| Glycaemic loadd | 185.7 (177.9) | 215.8 (211.9) | 235.5 (208.3) | 642.0 (625.6) | < 0.001 |
| Desserts and sweets, g/d | 23.6 (23.4) | 38.9 (35.9) | 41.1 (25.2) | 46.1 (28.7) | < 0.001 |
| Oil/butter/margarine, g/d | 21.0 (18.0) | 26.0 (22.1) | 31.6 (21.7) | 29.9 (18.8) | < 0.001 |
| Potato, g/d | 133.8 (85.4) | 130.4 (86.7) | 137.1 (90.7) | 151.1 (97.0) | 0.22 |
| Processed meat, g/d | 17.7 (13.2) | 17.8 (15.2) | 16.1 (11.0) | 17.6 (13.6) | 0.67 |
| Refined grains, g/d | 79.3 (45.1) | 89.7 (54.5) | 88.0 (48.6) | 94.0 (52.7) | 0.03 |
| Whole grains, g/d | 171.2 (91.2) | 157.6 (93.5) | 142.8 (81.3) | 120.5 (77.8) | < 0.001 |
| Offspring characteristics at birth, mean (SD)b | |||||
| Male, no. (%) | 150 (52.3) | 107 (54.3) | 164 (46.9) | 37 (44.0) | 0.2 |
| Gestational age, wks | 39.5 (1.6) | 39.7 (1.5) | 39.5 (1.7) | 39.4 (2.1) | 0.57 |
| Birthweight, g | 3704.4 (607.9) | 3818.0 (555.7) | 3691.7 (623.6) | 3603.2 (576.2) | 0.07 |
| Ponderal index, kg/m3 | 25.5 (2.7) | 25.8 (2.6) | 25.5 (2.6) | 25.5 (2.7) | 0.29 |
Wks, weeks; y, years; MVPA, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity; %E, percent of total energy intake.
aP-values were obtained by ANOVA for continuous variables and by χ2 test for categorical variables.
bValues are mean (SD) unless otherwise specified.
cIncluded pre-gestational hypertension, gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia and eclampsia.
dValue is energy-adjusted.