Table 1.
Postreproductive representation (PrR) for 52 species of placental mammal (for simplicity defined and referred to as species rather than subspecies or ecotypes). PrR represents the proportion of adult female years being lived by postreproductive females. Asterix (*) shows those that are significantly different from 0 (p < .05). Ex at maturity is the expected lifespan for a female reaching sexual maturity. Age M is the age at which 95% of population lifetime fecundity has been reached, and Ex at maturity shows the expected lifespan of females who reach age M. Demography indicates the dispersal system for group living species, asocial represents species found in groups but without evidence of coherent social groups. Note: as postreproductive life expectancy scales with total lifespan, in short‐lived species there may be survival past the end of reproduction but on scales shorter than a year, so eM will still be 0
| Common Name | Species Name | Ex at maturity | Age M (95% Fecundity) | Ex at age M | PrR [Growing Population, Shrinking Population] | Demography | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| African elephant | Loxodonta africana | 45 | 59 | 5 | 0.035 | Male‐biased dispersal | (1, 2) |
| American bison | Bison bison | 9 | 17 | 2 | 0.029 [0.009, 0.048] | Both sexes disperse | (3, 4) |
| American red squirrel | Tamiasciurus hudsonicus | 3 | 8 | 0 | 0 | Solitary | (5, 6) |
| Antarctic fur seal | Arctocephalus gazella | 10 | 17 | 1 | 0.004 [0.001, 0.006] | Asocial | (7, 8) |
| Arctic fox | Vulpes lagopus | 6 | 10 | 0 | 0.002 [0.001, 0.003] | Both sexes disperse | (9, 10) |
| Australian fur seal | Arctocephalus pusillus | 11 | 20 | 0 | 0.002 [0.001, 0.003] | Asocial | (8, 11) |
| Banded mongoose | Mungos mungo | 2 | 10 | 0 | 0 | Limited dispersal by both sexes | (12, 13) |
| Belding's ground squirrel | Urocitellus beldingi | 3 | 8 | 0 | 0.001 | Male‐biased dispersal | (14, 15) |
| Bighorn sheep | Ovis canadensis | 8 | 16 | 1 | 0.004 | Male‐biased dispersal | (16, 17) |
| Blue monkey | Cercopithecus mitis | 20 | 29 | 3 | 0.005 | Male‐biased dispersal | (18, 19) |
| Brown bear | Ursus arctos | 15 | 30 | 3 | 0.002 [0, 0.003] | Solitary | (20, 21) |
| Cheetah | Acinonyx jubatus | 7 | 12 | 0 | 0.003 | Solitary | (22, 23) |
| Chimpanzee | Pan troglodytes | 29 | 50 | 4 | 0.006 | Female‐biased dispersal | (18, 24) |
| Collared peccary | Pecari tajacu | 9 | 15 | 0 | 0.005 [0.002, 0.008] | Male‐biased dispersal | (25, 26) |
| Eastern gorilla | Gorilla beringei | 31 | 38 | 3 | 0.022 | Mixed | (18, 27) |
| European badger | Meles meles | 6 | 12 | 0 | 0.004 | Mixed | (28, 29) |
| Fin whale | Balaenoptera physalus | 22 | 95 | 13 | 0.006 [0, 0.012] | Solitary | (30, 31) |
| Golden‐mantled ground squirrel | Callospermophilus lateralis | 2 | 7 | 0 | 0 [0, 0] | Solitary | (32, 33) |
| Hawaiian monk seal | Monachus schauinslandi | 13 | 28 | 0 | 0 | Asocial | (34, 35) |
| Himalayan tahr | Hemitragus jemlahicus | 7 | 16 | 1 | 0.003 [0.001, 0.003] | Solitary | (36, 37) |
| Hippopotamus | Hippopotamus amphibius | 31 | 41 | 2 | 0.009 | Both sexes disperse | (38, 39) |
| Humans (Hadza hunter‐gathers) | Homo sapiens | 59 | 41 | 26 | 0.443* | Female‐biased dispersal | (40–43) |
| Japanese macaque | Macaca fuscata | 7 | 14 | 1 | 0.005 | Male‐biased dispersal | (44, 45) |
| Japanese serow | Capricornis crispus | 10 | 20 | 0 | 0 [0,0] | Both sexes disperse | (46, 47) |
| Killer whale | Orcinus orca | 51 | 41 | 19 | 0.309* | Neither sex disperse | (48–50) |
| Lechwe | Kobus leche | 6 | 11 | 0 | 0.003 [0.002, 0.006] | Both sexes disperse | (51, 52) |
| Leopard | Panthera pardus | 9 | 16 | 1 | 0.012 | Solitary | (53, 54) |
| Lion | Panthera leo | 9 | 15 | 1 | 0.004 | Male‐biased dispersal | (55, 56) |
| Long‐finned pilot whale | Globicephala melas | 26 | 57 | 2 | 0.002 [0,0.002] | Neither sex disperse | (57, 58) |
| Meerkat | Suricata suricatta | 3 | 12 | 0 | 0.004 [0.002, 0.008] | Male‐biased dispersal | (59, 60) |
| Moose | Alces alces | 10 | 15 | 2 | 0.02 [0.007, 0.029] | Solitary | (61–63) |
| North American beaver | Castor canadensis | 5 | 13 | 0 | 0.003 [0.002, 0.007] | Both sexes disperse | (64, 65) |
| Northern fur seal | Callorhinus ursinus | 11 | 21 | 2 | 0.002 [0, 0.002] | Asocial | (66, 67) |
| Olive baboon | Papio anubis | 13 | 23 | 2 | 0.02 | Male‐biased dispersal | (45, 56) |
| Plains zebra | Equus quagga | 12 | 19 | 1 | 0.006 [0.002, 0.011] | Both sexes disperse | (68, 69) |
| Polar bear | Ursus maritimus | 13 | 27 | 3 | 0.013 [0.004, 0.019] | Solitary | (70, 71) |
| Pyrenean chamois | Rupicapra pyrenaica | 6 | 11 | 0 | 0.001 [0.001, 0.001] | Male‐biased dispersal | (72, 73) |
| Raccoon | Procyon lotor | 7 | 12 | 0 | 0.004 [0.002, 0.005] | Solitary | (74, 75) |
| Red deer | Cervus elaphus | 12 | 17 | 0 | 0.001 | Male‐biased dispersal | (76, 77) |
| Reindeer | Rangifer tarandus | 8 | 16 | 0 | 0.001 [0, 0.002] | Both sexes disperse | (78–80) |
| Ring‐tailed lemur | Lemur catta | 8 | 16 | 0 | 0.001 | Male‐biased dispersal | (81, 82) |
| Short‐finned pilot whale | Globicephala macrorhynchus | 38 | 34 | 13 | 0.26* [0.131*, 0.352*] | Neither sex disperse | (83, 84) |
| Soay sheep | Ovis aries | 3 | 13 | 0 | 0.001 | Male‐biased dispersal | (85, 86) |
| Steller sea lion | Eumetopias jubatus | 14 | 27 | 2 | 0.017 [0.008, 0.029] | Asocial | (87, 88) |
| Verreaux's sifaka | Propithecus verreauxi | 14 | 30 | 1 | 0.003 | Male‐biased dispersal | (18, 82) |
| Walrus | Odobenus rosmarus | 15 | 24 | 2 | 0.018 [0.008, 0.029] | Male‐biased dispersal | (89, 90) |
| Weddell seal | Leptonychotes weddellii | 10 | 17 | 0 | 0.001 [0, 0.002] | Both sexes disperse | (91, 92) |
| West Indian manatee | Trichechus manatus | 21 | 56 | 3 | 0.009 [0.003, 0.014] | Solitary | (93, 94) |
| White‐headed capuchin | Cebus capucinus | 15 | 25 | 0 | 0.004 | Male‐biased dispersal | (18, 95) |
| Yellow baboon | Papio cynocephalus | 15 | 21 | 3 | 0.036 | Male‐biased dispersal | (18, 45) |
| Yellow‐bellied marmot | Marmota flaviventris | 5 | 12 | 2 | 0.006 | Male‐biased dispersal | (96, 97) |
Refs: 1. (Moss, 2001), 2. (Sukumar, 2003), 3. (Lott & Minta, 1983), 4. (Green, 1990), 5. (Larsen & Boutin, 1994), 6. (Descamps, Boutin, Berteaux, & Gaillard, 2008), 7. (Boyd, Croxall, Lunn, & Reid, 1995), 8. (Bonner, 1981), 9. (Angerbjörn, Hersteinsson, & Tannerfeldt, 2004), 10. (Eide, Stien, Prestrud, Yoccoz, & Fuglei, 2012), 11. (Gibbens, Parry, & Arnould, 2010), 12. (Cant, Nichols, Thompson, & Vitikainen, 2016), 13. (Mongoose Research Project, pers comms), 14. (Sherman, 1981), 15. (Sherman & Morton, 1984), 16. (Bérubé, Festa‐Bianchet, & Jorgenson, 1999), 17. (Festa‐Bianchet, 1991), 18. (Bronikowski et al., 2016), 19. (Cords, 1987), 20. (Schwartz et al., 2003), 21. (Bellemain, Swenson, & Taberlet, 2006), 22. (Kelly et al., 1998), 23. (Durant, Kelly, & Caro, 2004), 24. (Nishida & Hiraiwa‐Hasegawa, 1987), 25. (Low, 1962), 26. (Cooper et al., 2010), 27. (Stewart & Harcourt, 1987), 28. (Woodroffe, Macdonald, & da Silva, 1993), 29. (Carpenter et al., 2005), 30. (Mizroch, 1981), 31. (Aguilar, 2000), 32. (Bronson, 1979), 33. (Ferron, 1985), 34. (Job, Boness, & Francis, 1995), 35. (Harting, Baker, & Johanos, 2007), 36. (Caughley, 1966), 37. (Forsyth, Tustin, Gaillard, & Loison, 2004), 38. (Smuts & Whyte, 1981), 39. (Beckwitt et al., 2016), 40. (Marlow, 2004), 41. (Copeland et al., 2011), 42, (Lalueza‐Fox et al., 2011), 43. (Blurton Jones, 2016), 44. (Takahata et al., 1998), 45. (Melnick & Pearl, 1987), 46. (Akasaka & Maruyama, 1977), 47. (Miura, Kita, & Sugimura, 1987), 48. (Bigg et al., 1990), 49. (Olesiuk, Ellis, & Ford, 2005), 50. (Center for Whale Research pers coms.), 51. (Child & von Richter, 1968), 52. (Williamson, 1992), 53. (Balme et al., 2013), 54. (Fattebert, Balme, Dickerson, Slotow, & Hunter, 2015), 55. (Schaller, 1972), 56. (Packer, Tatar, & Collins, 1998), 57. (Martin & Rothery, 1993), 58. (Amos, Schlötterer, & Tautz, 1993), 59. (Sharp & Clutton‐Brock, 2010), 60. (Clutton‐Brock & Manser, 2016), 61. (Ericsson, Wallin, Ball, & Broberg, 2001), 62. (Solberg, Saether, Strand, & Loison, 1999), 63. (Gasaway, Dubois, Preston, & Reed, 1985), 64. (Payne, 1984), 65. (Busher, 2007), 66. (Lander, 1981), 67. (Insley, 2000), 68. (Grange et al., 2004), 69. (Fischhoff et al., 2007), 70. (Ramsay & Stirling, 1986), 71. (Ramsay, Stirling, Ramsey, & Stirling, 1988), 72. (Caughley, 1970), 73. (Loison, Jullien, & Menaut, 1999), 74. (Beasley & Rhodes, 2012), 75. (Hirsch, Prange, Hauver, & Gehrt, 2013), 76. (Benton, Grant, & Clutton‐Brock, 1995), 77. (Clutton‐Brock, Guinness, & Albon, 1982), 78. (Thomas & Barry, 1990a), 79. (Thomas & Barry, 1990b). 80. (Hirotani, 1990), 81. (Ichino et al., 2015), 82. (Kappler, 1999), 83. (Kasuya & Marsh, 1984), 84. (Heimlich‐Boran, 1993), 85. (Clutton‐Brock & Pemberton, 2004), 86. (Clutton‐Brock et al., 2004), 87. (Calkins & Pitcher, 1982), 88. (Loughlin, 2002), 89. (Born, 2001), 90. (Kastelein, 2002), 91. (Croxall & Hiby, 1983), 92. (Burns, Castellini, & Testa, 1999), 93. (Marmontel, 1995), 94. (Reynolds & Powell, 2002), 95. (Robinson & Janson, 1987), 96. (Schwartz, Armitage, & Van Vuren, 1998), 97. (Armitage, 1987).