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. 2018 Mar 9;8:4239. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-19993-9

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Overview of the Study Design and Time Points of Assessment (T0–T3). Participants attended one of four experimental conditions (ERGO, MAZE, COMBO, or CTR). Between time points T0 and T1, groups ERGO and COMBO completed eight 20-minute sessions of cycling while groups MAZE and CTR rested as passive controls. Between time points T1 and T2, groups MAZE and COMBO completed sixteen 30-minute sessions of maze training while groups ERGO and CTR rested as passive controls. No training took place between time points T2 and T3. At each assessment time point, participants took part in cognitive assessment, blood sampling, and 7 T MRI. Note that CTR only completed the cognitive assessment in order to control for test-retest effects induced by repeated testing. COMBO = group undergoing cycling exercise and maze training, CTR = passive controls, ERGO = group undergoing cycling exercise, MAZE = group undergoing maze training, MRI = Magnetic Resonance Imaging.